ผลต่างระหว่างรุ่นของ "การแบ่งโปแลนด์"

ในรัชสมัยของ[[พระเจ้าววาดือสวัฟที่ 4 วาซา|พระเจ้าววาดือสวัฟที่ 4]] (ครองราชย์ ค.ศ. 1632–48) หลักการ ''{{Interlanguage link|ลิเบอรัม วีโต|lt=|en|Lanzelin|WD=}}'' ({{lang|la|Liberum Veto}}) ได้รับการพัฒนาขึ้น a policy of parliamentary procedure based on the assumption of the political equality of every "[[Szlachta|gentleman/Polish nobleman]]," with the corollary that unanimous consent was needed for all measures. <ref name="Brit" /> A single member of parliament's belief that a measure was injurious to his own constituency (usually simply his own estate), even after the act had been approved, became enough to strike the act. Thus it became increasingly difficult to undertake action. The ''{{lang|la|liberum veto}}'' also provided openings for foreign diplomats to get their ways, through bribing nobles to exercise it.<ref name="Brit" /> Thus, one could characterise Poland–Lithuania in its final period (mid-18th century) before the partitions as already in a state of disorder and not a completely sovereign state, and almost as a [[vassal state]],<ref name="Scott" /> with Russian [[tsar]]s effectively choosing Polish kings. This applies particularly to the last Commonwealth King [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]], who for some time had been a lover of Russian Empress [[Catherine the Great]].

 

 

The Commonwealth had remained neutral in the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763), yet it sympathized with the alliance of France, [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]], and Russia, and allowed Russian troops access to its western lands as bases against Prussia. [[Frederick the Great|Frederick II]] retaliated by ordering enough Polish currency counterfeited to severely affect the Polish economy. Through the [[szlachta|Polish nobles]] whom Russia controlled and the Russian Minister to Warsaw, ambassador and Prince [[Nicholas Repnin]], Empress Catherine the Great forced a constitution on the Commonwealth at the so-called [[Repnin Sejm]] of 1767, named after ambassador Repnin, who effectively dictated the terms of that Sejm (and ordered the capture and exile to [[Kaluga]] of some vocal opponents of his policies,<ref name="Scott">{{cite book |first=Hamish M. |last=Scott |title=The Emergence of the Eastern Powers, 1756–1775 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=0-521-79269-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN052179269X&pg=PA182&dq=Repnin+Poland |pages=181–182}}</ref><ref name="Steed,">H. Wickham Steed, [http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=26 A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070924183148/http://www.historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&bookid=2&cid=26 |date=2007-09-24 }}, 1914, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved on 3 August 2007.</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson" /> including [[bishop]] [[Józef Andrzej Załuski]]<ref name="Cas">Various, ''The Story of My Life'', Penguin Classics, 2001, {{ISBN|0-14-043915-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0140439153&id=-0F8CRLDPv4C&pg=PA528&dq=1773+Siberia+Sejm&sig=LzpFpeGuq9h3dWWoWnEqqiUu0QY Google Print, p. 528]</ref> and others). This new constitution undid the reforms made in 1764 under [[Stanisław August Poniatowski|Stanisław II]]. The ''{{lang|la|liberum veto}}'' and all the old abuses of the last one and a half centuries were guaranteed as unalterable parts of this new constitution (in the so-called ''[[Cardinal Laws]]''<ref name="Seton-Watson">{{cite book |author-link=Hugh Seton-Watson |first=Hugh |last=Seton-Watson |title=The Russian Empire, 1801–1917 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1967 |isbn=0-19-822152-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40KbWNve4XkC&q=repnin+polish+1768&pg=PA44 |page=44}}</ref><ref name="RB">{{Cite book |first=Richard |last=Butterwick |title=Poland-Lithuania's Last King and English Culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-820701-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySzrq3JwjBEC&q=Repnin+Poland&pg=PA169 |page=169}}</ref>). Repnin also demanded the Russian protection of the rights of peasants in private estates of Polish and Lithuanian noblemen, religious freedom for the Protestant and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] and the political freedoms for Protestants, Orthodox Christians and [[Eastern Catholics]] (Uniates), including their right to occupy all state positions, including a royal one. The next king could be a member of the Russian ruling dynasty now. The Sejm approved this. Resulting reaction among some of Poland's Roman Catholics, as well as the deep resentment of Russian intervention in the Commonwealth's domestic affairs including the exile to Russia of the top Roman Catholic bishops, the members of the Polish Senate, led to the War of the [[Bar Confederation|Confederation of Bar]] of 1768–1772, formed in [[Bar, Ukraine|Bar]], where the Poles tried to expel Russian forces from Commonwealth territory.<ref name="Scott" /><ref name="Seton-Watson" /> The irregular and poorly commanded Polish forces had little chance in the face of the regular Russian army and suffered a major defeat. Adding to the chaos was a [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Cossacks|Cossack]] and peasant rebellion in the east ([[Koliyivshchyna]]), which erupted in 1768 and resulted in massacres of [[szlachta|Polish noblemen]] (''{{lang|pl|szlachta}}''), Jews, [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Uniates]], ethnic minorities and Catholic priests, before it was put down by Russian and governmental Polish troops. This uprising led to the intervention of the Ottoman Empire, supported by Roman Catholic France and Austria. Bar confederation and France promised [[Podolia]] and [[Volhynia]] and the protectorate over the Commonwealth to the [[Ottoman Empire]] for armed support.