|
คำว่า ฮิวริสติก มาจากกรีก "[[eureka]]": εὑρισκω, ซึ่งหมายถึง ข้าพเจ้าพบแล้ว ("I find"). ฮิวริสติกเป็นผลของความพยายามอย่างถึงที่สุด
นักคณิตศาสตร์ชื่อ[[จอร์จ โพลยา]] ([[:en:George Polya|George Polya]]) ทำให้ฮิวริสติกเกิดความนิยมใน[[คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 20]] ในหนังสือของเขาที่ชื่อ ''แก้ปัญหาอย่างไร'' (''[[:en:How to Solve It|How to Solve It]]'') ปกติแล้วเมื่อนักเรียนได้เรียน[[บทพิสูจน์ทางคณิตศาสตร์]]แล้ว พวกเขามักไม่ทราบว่าจะหาบทพิสูจน์ดังกล่าวได้อย่างไรเพราะเป็นเรื่องที่ยากมาก หนังสือ ''แก้ปัญหาอย่างไร'' ได้เก็บรวบรวมไอเดียเกี่ยวกับฮิวริสติกที่เขาใช้สอนนักศึกษา ซึ่งหนังสือนี้เป็นสิ่งที่ช่วยแนะแนวทางที่มองปัญหาและวิธีการแก้ปัญหาได้
ฮิวริสติกที่ใช้ทั่วไป (จากหนังสือ ''แก้ปัญหาอย่างไร''):
Some commonplace heuristics, all from ''[[How to Solve It]]'': if you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture; if you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward"); if the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example; try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious plan may have more chances of success).
* ถ้าคุณพบว่าปัญหานั้นทำความเข้าใจได้ยาก ให้ลองวาดรูปดู
* ถ้าคุณไม่สามารถหาคำตอบได้, ให้ลองสมมติว่าคุณมีคำตอบอยู่แล้วและดูว่าคำตอบเหล่านั้นให้อะไรกับเราบ้าง ("ทำงานย้อนหลัง")
* ถ้าปัญหานั้นมีลักษณะเป็นนามธรรม, ให้ลองนึกถึงตัวอย่างที่จับต้องได้
* ให้ลองแก้ปัญหาในกรณีทั่วไปก่อน ("เรื่องประหลาดของนักคิด": แผนการที่มุ่งเป้าสูงกว่ามีโอกาสสำเร็จมากกว่า)
{{โครง}}
''Grammatical note:'' The name of the topic is ''heuristic'' (not "heuristics"), a particular technique of directing your attention toward discovery is ''a heuristic,'' two or more of these are ''heuristics,'' and the adjective for "pertaining to how something is discovered" is ''heuristic.''
==Psychology==
In [[psychology]], '''heuristics''' are simple, efficient rules of thumb which have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgments and solve problems, typically when facing complex problems or incomplete information. These rules work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases lead to systematic [[cognitive bias]]es.
For instance, people may tend to perceive more expensive [[beer]]s as tasting better than inexpensive ones. This finding holds even when prices and brands are switched; putting the high price on the normally relatively inexpensive brand is enough to lead experimental participants to perceive that beer as tasting better than the beer that is normally relatively expensive. One might call this "price implies quality" bias.
Much of the work of discovering heuristics in human decision makers was ignited by [[Amos Tversky]] and [[Daniel Kahneman]], who shared an important influence on [[behavioral finance]]. Critics led by [[Gerd Gigerenzer]] focus on how heuristics can be used to make principally accurate judgments rather than producing cognitive biases — heuristics that are "fast and frugal".
===Theorized psychological heuristics===
''Well-known:''
*[[Anchoring and adjustment]]
*[[Availability heuristic]]
*[[Representativeness heuristic]]
''Lesser-known:''
*[[Affect heuristic]]
*[[Contagion heuristic]]
*[[Effort heuristic]]
*[[Familiarity heuristic]]
*[[Fluency heuristic]]
*[[Peak-end rule]]
*[[Recognition heuristic]]
*[[Scarcity heuristic]]
*[[Similarity heuristic]]
*[[Simulation heuristic]]
*[[Social proof]]
==Philosophy==
In [[philosophy]], especially in its Continental European kind, the [[adjective]] "'''heuristic'''" (or the designation "'''heuristic device'''") is used when an entity X is there to understand or to find out about some other entity Y, with which X is not identical. A good example is a [[model]], which, as it is never identical with whatever it models, is a heuristic device to understand the latter. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristics in that sense. A classic example is the notion of [[utopia]] as described in [[Plato]]'s best-known work, ''[[Plato's Republic|Politeia]]''.This means that the purpose of the "ideal city" as depicted in the ''Politeia'' is not to be pursued or to present an orientation-point for development, but rather, that it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another - often with highly problematic results, if one would opt for certain principles and carry them through rigorously.
==Law==
In [[legal theory]], especially that of [[law and economics]], heuristics are used in the [[law]] when case-by-case analysis would be impractical.
For instance, in the [[United States]] the [[legal drinking age]] is 21, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of [[alcohol]] consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary deadline is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether one individual is mature enough that society can trust them with that kind of responsibility.
The same reasoning applies to [[patent law]]. [[Patent]]s are justified on the grounds that inventors need to be protected in order to have incentive to invent (or else suffer the [[tragedy of the commons]] if anyone could use their idea). So, it is argued that it is in the best interest of society to issue inventors a temporary government-granted [[monopoly]] on their product so they can recoup their investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period of time. In the United States the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the application for patent was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product in order to be efficient, but the 20-year number is used because it is difficult to tell what the number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some including [[Lawrence Lessig]] have argued that patents in different kinds of industries such as [[software patent]]s should be protected for different lengths of time.
==Computer science==
''Main article [[Heuristic (computer science)]]''
In [[computer science]], a '''heuristic''' is a technique
designed to solve a problem that ignores whether the solution is provably correct, but which usually produces a good solution or solves a simpler problem that contains or intersects with the solution of the more complex problem.
Heuristics are intended to gain computational performance or conceptual simplicity potentially at the cost of [[accuracy and precision|accuracy or precision]].
==See also==
* [[Problem solving]]
== External links ==
* http://greenlightwiki.com/heuristic A wiki devoted to heuristic.
== Further reading ==
* ''How To Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method'', George Polya, Princeton University Press, 1945,1957,1973. ISBN 0-691-02356-5 ISBN 0-691-08097-6
* ''Judgement under Uncertainty: Heuristics & Biases'', ed. Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky and Paul Slovic, [http://www.cambridge.org/ Cambridge University Press], 1982, ISBN 0521284147
* ''Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach'', S. Russel and P. Norvig, [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~russell/aima.html], Prentice Hall, 2nd ed., 2002. ISBN 0137903952
[[de:Heuristik]]
[[id:Heuristik]]
[[ja:ヒューリスティクス]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Heuristic]]
[[Category:Cognition]]
| 