ผลต่างระหว่างรุ่นของ "ซูอันไทเฮา"

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{{ใช้ปีคศ}}
{{ผู้นำประเทศ
<!----------ชื่อ---------->
| name = {{fs|85%|[[The Right Honourable|ใต้เท้ากรุณา]]}} <br> ใต้เท้าเดนนิง <br> {{color|grey|The Lord Denning}}
| name = สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีฉืออัน <br> พระพันปีหลวง
<!----------ภาพ---------->
| image = 《慈竹延清图》.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| smallimage =
| caption
<!----------ตำแหน่ง1---------->
| order = [[อารักษ์ม้วนอักษร]] <br> {{color|grey|(Master of the Rolls)}}
| order = ผู้สำเร็จราชการแทนพระองค์ <br> สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิแห่งมหาจักวรรดิชิง
| term_start = 19 เมษายน ค.ศ. 1962
<!----------วาระ---------->
| term_end = 29 กันยายน ค.ศ. 1982 <br>({{อายุปีและวัน|1962|04|19|1982|10|29}})
| term_start = 11 พฤศจิกายน ค.ศ. 1861
| predecessor = [[Raymond Evershed, 1st Baron Evershed|ใต้เท้าเอเวอร์เชด]] (Lord Evershed)
| term_end = 8 เมษายน ค.ศ. 1881<br>({{อายุปีและวัน|1861|11|11|1881|04|08}})
| successor = [[John Donaldson, Baron Donaldson of Lymington|ใต้เท้าโดนัลด์สันแห่งไลมิงตัน]] (Lord Donaldson of Lymington)
<!----------รองประธานาธิบดี/รองนายกรัฐมนตรี/รักษาการ/ปฏิบัติราชการแทน---------->
| vicepresident =
| viceprimeminister =
| deputy =
| lieutenant =
<!----------ประธานาธิบดี/นายกรัฐมนตรีขณะที่ดำรงตำแหน่ง---------->
| president =
| primeminister =
<!----------สมัยก่อนหน้า/สมัยถัดไป---------->
| predecessor = คณะผู้สำเร็จราชการแทนพระองค์ ([[ซู่ชุ่น]], [[ไจ่หยวน]], [[ตวนหวา]] และเสนาบดีคนอื่น ๆ อีก 5 นาย)
| successor = [[พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่]] (ในฐานะผู้สำเร็จราชการแทนพระองค์โดยลำพัง)
<!----------ตำแหน่ง2---------->
| order2 = [[ขุนนางอุทธรณ์ทั่วไป]] <br> {{color|grey|(Lord of Appeal in Ordinary)}}
| order2 = [[รายพระนามสมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีและพระพันปีหลวงแห่งจีน|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีแห่งมหาจักรวรรดิชิง]]
| term_start2 = 24 April 1957
| term_end2 = 1962
| predecessor2 = [[Geoffrey Lawrence, 1st Baron Oaksey|Lord Oaksey]]
| successor2 = [[Raymond Evershed, 1st Baron Evershed|Lord Evershed]]
<!----------ตำแหน่ง3---------->
| order3 = [[ใต้เท้าตุลาการศาลอุทธรณ์]] <br> {{color|grey|(Lord Justice of Appeal)}}
| term_start3 = 12 October 1948
| term_end3 = 1957
<!----------ตำแหน่ง4---------->
| order4 = [[ศาลยุติธรรมชั้นสูง|ตุลาการศาลยุติธรรมชั้นสูงแห่งอังกฤษและเวลส์]] <br> {{color|grey|(Judge of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales)}}
| term_start4 = 7 March 1944
| term_end4 = 1948
<!----------เกิด/ถึงแก่อสัญกรรม---------->
| birth_date = 23 January 1899
| birth_title = พระราชสมภพ
| birth_place = [[Whitchurch, Hampshire]]
| birth_date = 12 สิงหาคม 1837
| death_date = 5 March 1999 (aged 100)
| birth_place =
| death_place = [[Royal Hampshire County Hospital]], [[Winchester]]
| death_title = ทิวงคต
| nationality = English
| death_date = 8 เมษายน 1881 <br> ({{อายุปีและวัน|1837|08|12|1881|04|08}})
| spouse = Mary Harvey (28 December 1932&nbsp;– 22 November 1941) <br />Joan Stuart (27 December 1945&nbsp;– 23 October 1992)
| death_place = [[พระราชวังต้องห้าม]] [[ปักกิ่ง]] <br> [[ราชวงศ์ชิง|มหาจักรวรรดิชิง]]
| party =
<!----------constituency---------->
| relations =
| constituency
| children = One son
<!----------พรรค---------->
| party residence =
| alma_mater = [[Magdalen College, Oxford]]
<!----------อื่นๆ---------->
| occupation =
| สัญชาติ =[[จีน]]
| profession = Barrister, Judge
| spouse = [[จักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง]]
| religion = [[Church of England|Anglican]]
| profession =
| signature =
| religion = [[พุทธศาสนา]]
| signature website =
| footnotes =
<!----------รับราชการทหาร---------->
| สังกัด =
| เหล่าทัพ =
| รับราชการทหาร =
| ยศ =
| หน่วยทหาร =
| บัญชาการ =
| สงคราม =
| รางวัล =
| footnotes =
}}
 
'''อัลเฟรด ทอมป์สัน ‘ทอม’ เดนนิง บารอนเดนนิง''' (23 มกราคม ค.ศ. 1899&nbsp;– 5 มีนาคม ค.ศ. 1999) หรือมักเรียกกันว่า '''ใต้เท้าเดนนิง''' (Lord Denning) เป็นนักนิติศาสตร์และตุลาการชาวอังกฤษ เข้าศึกษาในสาขาคณิตศาสตร์และนิติศาสตร์จากมหาวิทยาลัยออกซ์ฟอร์ด แต่การเล่าเรียนในระดับอุดมศึกษาต้องชะงักลงเพราะหน้าที่รับใช้ชาติในสงครามโลกครั้งที่หนึ่ง กระนั้น เขาก็สำเร็จการศึกษามาได้ด้วยดี แล้วเริ่มทำงานในวงการนิติศาสตร์ มีชื่อเสียงจากการเป็น[[เนติบัณฑิต]] (barrister) จนได้เป็น[[หมอความหลวง]] (King's Counsel) เมื่อ ค.ศ. 1938
'''สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี้ยวเจินเสี่ยน''' ({{zh-all|c=孝贞显皇后|p=Xiào Zhēn Xiǎn}}) หรือ '''สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีฉืออัน พระพันปีหลวง''' ({{zh-all|c=慈禧太后|p=Cí'ān Tàihòu|w=Tz'u-An T'ai-hou}}) หรือที่รู้จักกันใน[[ประเทศไทย|ไทย]]ว่า '''"พระพันปีหลวงฉืออัน"''' หรือ '''"ฉืออันไท่โฮ่ว"''' หรือตามสำเนียงฮกเกี้ยนว่า '''"ซูอันไทเฮา"''' (ประสูติ: 12 สิงหาคม 1837; ทิวงคต: 8 เมษายน 1881) เป็นราชนิกุลชาวแมนจูใน[[ประวัติศาสตร์จีน]]สมัย[[ราชวงศ์ชิง]] ซึ่งมีบทบาทคู่กับ '''"[[พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่]]"''' หรือ '''"ฉือสี่ไท่โฮ่ว"''' หรือ '''"ซูสีไทเฮา"''' และเชื่อกันว่าทรงถูกพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ทรงปลงพระชนม์เพราะความขัดแย้งระหว่างทั้งสองพระองค์ด้วย
 
เดนนิงได้รับแต่งตั้งเป็นตุลาการ[[แผนกคดีครอบครัว]] (Family Division) ใน[[ศาลยุติธรรมชั้นสูง]] (High Court of Justice) เมื่อ ค.ศ. 1944 แล้วจึงได้เป็น[[ใต้เท้าตุลาการศาลอุทธรณ์]] (Lord Justice of Appeal) เมื่อ ค.ศ. 1948 แม้ได้อยู่ในศาลยุติธรรมชั้นสูงยังไม่ถึงห้าปี ครั้น ค.ศ. 1957 จึงได้รับแต่งตั้งเป็น[[ขุนนางอุทธรณ์ทั่วไป]] (Lords of Appeal in Ordinary) ใน[[สภาขุนนาง]] (House of Lords) ดำรงตำแหน่ง[[ฝ่ายตุลาการในสภาขุนนาง]]นั้นไม่ถึงห้าปี ก็ได้รับโยกย้ายไปเป็น[[อารักษ์ม้วนอักษร]] (Master of the Rolls) หรือรองอธิบดีตุลาการ เมื่อ ค.ศ. 1962 เขาดำรงตำแหน่งนั้นอยู่ถึงยี่สิบปีจึงเกษียณอายุราชการ เดนนิงในวัยเกษียณได้แต่งหนังสือไว้หลายเล่ม และนำเสนอความเห็นหลายประการเกี่ยวกับระบบ[[คอมมอนลอว์]]ผ่านงานเขียนและบทบาทสมาชิกสภาขุนนางของเขา
== พระราชประวัติ ==
 
เดนนิงบันทึกรายงาน[[คดีโพรฟูโม]] (Profumo Affair) อันเป็นเรื่องอื้อฉาวทางการเมืองอังกฤษเมื่อ ค.ศ. 1963 เอาไว้ เป็นเหตุให้เขาเป็นหนึ่งในบรรดาตุลาการซึ่งประชาชนรู้จักมากที่สุด เขายังเป็นที่เคารพเลื่อมใสของฝ่ายตุลาการ เหล่าเนติบัณฑิต และประชาชนทั่วไป มีชื่อเสียงจากความหาญกล้าวินิจฉัยหักล้างกฎหมายในเวลานั้นหลายครั้งหลายครา ในห้วงเวลาสามสิบแปดปีแห่งหน้าที่ตุลาการ เดนนิงได้สร้างความเปลี่ยนแปลงขนานใหญ่ในระบบคอมมอนลอว์ โดยเฉพาะในครั้งที่เขาเป็นตุลาการศาลอุทธรณ์ นอกจากนี้ แม้ว่าคำวินิจฉัยจำนวนมากของเขาจะถูกสภาขุนนางกลับ แต่ก็มีจำนวนมากเช่นกันที่[[รัฐสภาอังกฤษ]]รับรองแล้วนำมาบัญญัติเป็นกฎหมายลายลักษณ์อักษร อย่างไรก็ดี แม้เดนนิงเป็นที่นิยมบูชากันว่าเป็น ‘ตุลาการของประชาชน’ (the people's judge) แต่เขาก็ถูกวิพากษ์วิจารณ์ในการรณรงค์ต่อต้านหลักกฎหมายคอมมอนลอว์ที่ให้ยึดถือ[[บรรทัดฐาน]] และการออกความเห็นเกี่ยวกับกลุ่มนักโทษซึ่งขนานนามว่า [[หกเบอร์มิงแฮม]] (Birmingham Six) กับ[[สี่กิลฟอร์ด]] (Guildford Four) รวมตลอดถึงการปะทะคารมในสภาขุนนางแต่ครั้งที่เขาเป็นรองอธิบดีตุลาการ
พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันทรงเป็นธิดาของนายมู่หยังกา ({{zh-all|p=Muyangga}}) ข้าราชการชาวแมนจูจากเผ่าหนิวฮู่ลู่ ({{zh-all|p=Niuhuru}}) ที่ทรงอิทธิพลมาก กับนางกี่หยาง ({{zh-all|p=Giyang}}) จากเผ่ากี่หยาง มีพระนามเดิมว่า '''จิงเอ๋อร์'''
 
== ต้นชีวิตและการศึกษา ==
หนิวฮู่ลู่เข้าถวายตัวเป็นราชบริจาริกาในปลาย[[พุทธศตวรรษที่ 23]] ราวช่วง [[พ.ศ. 2383]]-[[พ.ศ. 2400|2400]] และได้รับการสถาปนาเป็นพระวรชายาของมกุฎราชกุมาร ครั้งนั้น มกุฎราชกุมารมีพระวรชายาเอกอยู่แล้วคือ [[สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี่ยวเต๋อ|พระนางสะโกตา]] ({{zh-all|p=Sakda}}) ผู้ซึ่งสิ้นพระชนม์ไปก่อนพระภัสดาเมื่อวันที่ [[24 มกราคม]] [[พ.ศ. 2393]] และต่อมาได้รับการเฉลิมพระนามว่า "สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี้ยวเต๋อเสี่ยน" ({{zh-all|c=孝德显|p=Xiào Dé Xiǎn}}) ในเดือนถัดมาหลังจากพระวรชายาสะโกตาเสด็จสิ้นพระชนม์ [[จักรพรรดิเต้ากวง|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเต้ากวง]]ก็เสด็จสวรรคตด้วย ยังให้มกุฎราชกุมารขึ้นทรงราชย์เป็น[[จักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง|'''สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง''']]เถลิงรัชกาลใหม่
 
Denning was born on 23 January 1899 in [[Whitchurch, Hampshire]], to Charles Denning, a draper, and his wife Clara Denning (née Thompson). He was one of six children; his older brother [[Reginald Denning]] later became a noted staff officer with the [[British Army]], and his younger brother [[Norman Denning]] became [[Naval Intelligence Division|Director of Naval Intelligence]] and [[Defence Intelligence|Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Intelligence)]].<ref>Heward (1990) p.8</ref> Denning was born two months earlier than expected and almost died at birth; he was so small and weak that he was nicknamed '[[Tom Thumb]]' and could fit in a pint pot.<ref name="alcite">Heward (1990) p.6</ref> He was named after [[Alfred the Great]] by his sister Marjorie, and was baptised on 23 April 1899 at All Hallows Church, Whitchurch.<ref name="alcite" />
ราวปลายเดือนมีนาคมถึงต้นเดือนเมษายน [[พ.ศ. 2395]] หลังพระราชพิธีจัดการพระบรมศพสมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเต้ากวงสิ้นสุดลง หนิวฮู่ลู่ก็ได้รับการสถาปนาขึ้นเป็นพระมเหสี และได้รับพระราชทานนามใหม่ว่า "เจิน" ({{zh-all|c=贞|p=Zhēn; ผู้เพรียบพร้อมไปด้วยกัลยาณิสมบัติ}} และในราวปลายเดือนมิถุนายนถึงต้นเดือนกรกฎาคมของปีนั้น ก็ได้รับการสถานาขึ้นเป็นสมเด็จพระอัครมเหสี ดังนั้น ตั้งแต่วันที่ [[24 กรกฎาคม]] ปีนั้นเอง เป็นต้นไป จึงมีประกาศให้เฉลิมพระนามสมเด็จพระอัครมเหสีเจินว่า '''"สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเจิน"'''
 
Denning, along with his older brother Gordon, began his schooling at the National School of Whitchurch, one of many set up by the [[National Society for the Education of the Poor]]. Both boys won scholarships to Andover Grammar School, where Denning excelled academically, winning four prizes for English essays on the subjects of "The Great Authors", "[[Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay|Macaulay]]", "[[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]]" and "[[John Milton|Milton]]".<ref>Freeman (1993) p.23</ref> The outbreak of the First World War saw most of the schoolmasters leave to join the British armed forces, being replaced by female teachers. At the time Denning wanted to become a mathematician, but none of the new teachers knew enough mathematics to teach him; instead, he taught himself.<ref name="hew2">Heward (1990) p.10</ref> He qualified to study at [[University College, Southampton]] but was advised to stay at school and apply to Oxford or Cambridge in a few years. He sat the Oxbridge examination when he was sixteen and was awarded a £30 a year [[Exhibition (scholarship)|exhibition]] to study mathematics at [[Magdalen College, Oxford]]; the money was not enough to live on, but he accepted nevertheless. Although he had been accepted by a college he still needed to gain entry to the university as a whole, which meant passing exams including Greek&nbsp;– which had not been taught at Andover Grammar School. Denning managed to teach himself enough of the subject to pass, and [[matriculation|matriculated]] to Oxford in 1916.<ref name="fre1">Freeman (1993) p.38</ref>
เนื่องจากสมเด็จพระอัครมเหสีเจินไม่ทรงสามารถประทานพระโอรสให้แก่พระภัสดาได้ นาง[[พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่|'''เย่เฮ่อน่าลา''']]ผู้ซึ่งเข้าถวายตัวเป็นราชบริจาริกาและสามารถให้โอรสแก่สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิได้ในเดือนเมษายน [[พ.ศ. 2399]] จึงได้รับการสถาปนาเป็นมเหสีตามลำดับชั้น
 
In addition to his Magdalen Scholarship he had a scholarship from [[Hampshire]] [[County Council]] worth £50 a year.<ref name="fre1" /> After arriving he made a favourable impression on [[Sir Herbert Warren]], the President of Magdalen College, who upgraded the exhibition to a [[Demyship]] of £80 a year and arranged for the [[Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths]] to give Denning a £30 a year scholarship.<ref name="hew2" /> Despite military training in the early morning and evening, Denning worked hard at his studies, and obtained a [[First Class Honours (degree)|First]] in Mathematical [[Honour Moderations|Moderations]], the first half of his mathematics degree, in June 1917.<ref name="fre2">Freeman (1993) p.53</ref>
วันที่ [[22 สิงหาคม]] [[พ.ศ. 2404]] ภายหลัง[[สงครามฝิ่น]] สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิงก็เสด็จสวรรคตขณะทรงลี้ภัยสงครามไปประทับ ณ พระราชวังในเมืองเฉิงเต๋อ ({{zh-all|c=承德|p=Chéngdé}}) [[มณฑลเหอเป่ย์]] ห่างจากกรุงปักกิ่งไปทางตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือเป็นระยะทางสองร้อยสามสิบ[[กิโลเมตร]] พระโอรสของพระมเหสีเย่เฮ่อน่าลา ซึ่งได้ทรงดำรงตำแหน่งมกุฎราชกุมาร และในขณะนั้นมีพระชนม์เพียงห้าพรรษา จึงเสวยราชย์เป็นรัชกาลต่อมา พระนามว่า "[[จักรพรรดิถงจื้อ|'''สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิถงจื้อ''']]" ด้วยความที่ทรงพระเยาว์อยู่ สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิพระองค์ก่อนจึงได้ทรงแต่งตั้งคณะผู้สำเร็จราชการแทนพระองค์ไว้โดยมีอัครมหาเสนาบดี คือ '''ซู่ชุ่น''' ({{zh-all|c=肃顺|p=Sùshùn}}) เป็นประธาน โดยคณะผู้สำเร็จราชการฯ ได้ประกาศเฉลิมพระนามสมเด็จพระอัครมเหสีเจินเป็น '''"พระพันปีหลวงฉืออัน"''' และพระมเหสีแย่เฮ่อน่าลาเป็น '''"พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่"''' ตำแหน่งไท่โฮ่วนี้เรียกเป็นภาษาไทยว่า "สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวง"
 
== หน้าที่ในสงคราม ==
== พระพันปีหลวงและผู้สำเร็จราชการในจักรพรรดิถงจื้อ ==
 
Denning was initially told he would be ineligible to serve in the Armed Forces because of a [[Heart murmur|systolic heart murmur]], which he believed the doctor diagnosed because he was tired of sending young men off to die.<ref name="fre2" /> He successfully appealed against the decision, and enlisted on 14 August 1917 as a cadet in the [[Royal Hampshire Regiment]] before being sent to the [[Royal Engineers]] Oxford University Officer Training Corps. He trained at Newark and was temporarily commissioned as a [[second lieutenant]] on 17 November 1917.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=30410|supp=yes|startpage=12634|date=30 November 1917|accessdate=13 February 2009}}</ref> Although he was old enough to serve in the armed forces, regulations meant that he was not allowed to serve in France until he was nineteen.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.5 54</ref> In March 1918 the German Army advanced closer to [[Amiens]] and Paris, and Denning's unit was sent to France to help stop the advance. Under continuous shell fire for three months, the company and the [[38th (Welsh) Infantry Division]] held their section of the [[front line|line]], with a unit under Denning's command building a bridge to allow infantry to advance over the [[River Ancre]].<ref name="hew3">Heward (1990) p.11</ref> Denning went two days without sleep while building these bridges; shortly after one was completed, a German aeroplane dropped a bomb on it, forcing them to start again.<ref name="hew3" /> The unit advanced over the River Ancre and the [[Canal du Nord]], but Denning fell ill with influenza and was in hospital for the last few days of the war.<ref name="hew3">Heward (1990) p.12</ref>
อย่างไรก็ดี พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ ผู้ซึ่งทรงปรารถนาพระราชอำนาจทางการเมือง ได้ทรงก่อ[[รัฐประหาร]]ขึ้นในเดือนพฤศจิกายน [[พ.ศ. 2404]] เป็นผลสำเร็จด้วยความช่วยเหลือของบรรดาเชื้อพระวงศ์และข้าราชการที่จงชังคณะผู้สำเร็จราชการ ส่งผลให้บรรดาผู้สำเร็จราชการฯ ถูกกล่าวหาว่าใช้อำนาจในทางไม่ถูกต้องและกล่าวโทษว่าเป็นกบฏ ต้องโทษประหารชีวิต สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงทั้งสองพระองค์จึงได้ว่าราชการอยู่หลังม่านแทนสมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิถงจื้อซึ่งทรงพระเยาว์อยู่
 
== กลับออกซ์ฟอร์ด ==
ใน[[ประเทศจีน]]นั้น มักออกพระนามสมเด็จพระพันปีหลวง โดยพระพันปีหลวงฉืออัน ว่า '''"สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงฝั่งตะวันออก"''' ({{zh-all|c=东太后|p=Dōngtàihòu, ตงไท่โฮ่ว}}) เพราะทรงประทับอยู่พระราชวังจงฉุยฝั่งตะวันออก ({{lang-en|Eastern Zhongchiu Palace}}) และพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ว่า '''"สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงฝั่งตะวันตก"''' ({{zh-all|c=西太后|p=Xītàihòu, สีไท่โฮ่ว}}) เนื่องจากมักประทับยังพระราชวังฉือซิ่วฝั่งตะวันตก ({{lang-en| Western Chuxiu Palace}})
 
[[Image:MagdalenCollegeOxford20040613 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Magdalen College, Oxford, where Denning studied between 1916 and 1918, 1919 and 1920 and from 1921 to 1922]]
Denning was demobilised on 6 February 1919,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=32157|supp=yes|startpage=12149|date=7 December 1920|accessdate=13 February 2009}}</ref> and returned to Magdalen College four days later.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.52</ref> He initially thought about turning to applied mathematics, but decided on pure mathematics.<ref name="hew3" /> He studied hard, not participating in any of the university's numerous societies or clubs so that he could better focus on his work, and graduated in 1920 with a first in Mathematical Greats.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.65</ref> He was offered a job teaching mathematics at [[Winchester College]] for £350 a year, which he accepted. As well as mathematics, he taught geology, despite not having studied it; instead, he "read up on [it] the night before".<ref name="Freeman 1993 p.86">Freeman (1993) p.86</ref> He found the job boring,<ref>Heward (1990) p.13</ref> and after viewing the [[Assize Court]] at Winchester Castle decided he would like to be a barrister.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.70</ref> On the advice of Herbert Warren, he returned to Magdalen to study [[Jurisprudence]] in October 1921. Thanks to Warren, Denning was elected to the Eldon Law Scholarship, worth £100 a year, to finance his studies; when the news of Denning's election was brought, Warren wrote "you are a marked man. Perhaps you will be a Lord of Appeal some day".<ref name="hew4">Heward (1990) p.14</ref> Denning took his final examinations in June 1922 and impressed the examiner, [[Geoffrey Cheshire]], by correctly answering questions on the Law of Property Act which had been given [[Royal Assent]] only a few days before.<ref name="hew4" /> Denning gained a first in all his subjects except jurisprudence, which he described as "too abstract a subject for my liking". He did not return to study for a [[Bachelor of Civil Law]] (BCL) but instead attempted to gain a fellowship at [[All Souls College, Oxford]]; he failed to be accepted, something he put down to his poor pronunciation of Latin.<ref name="hew5">Heward (1990) p.15</ref>
 
== เนติบัณฑิต ==
ในต้น[[พุทธศตวรรษที่ 24]] พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันและพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ทรงปฏิบัติหน้าที่ด้วยกันในตำแหน่งผู้สำเร็จราชการแทน[[จักรพรรดิถงจื้อ|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิถงจื้อ]] ถึงแม้โดยนิตินัย พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันจะทรงดำรงอยู่ในพระสถานะสูงกว่าพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ แต่ด้วยความที่ไม่ใฝ่พระทัยในการเมือง และทรงพึงพระทัยในความสันโดษมากกว่า ทำให้พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ผู้ทรงมีพระบุคลิกลักษณะในทางตรงกันข้าม ได้ซึ่งพระราชอำนาจทางการเมืองไว้โดยพฤตินัยแต่เพียงพระองค์เดียว
 
Denning was admitted to [[Lincoln's Inn]] on 4 November 1921, choosing it because the Under Treasurer was a graduate of Magdalen College.<ref>Heward (1990) p.20</ref> On the advice of his brother's friend [[Boyd Merriman, 1st Baron Merriman|Frank Merriman]] he applied to 4 Brick Court, Middle Temple Lane, a small set of chambers run by Henry O'Hagan. He was accepted and began work there in September 1922, before he had taken his final [[bar exam]]. He finished his final exam in May 1923 and came top in the bar examination, with the Inn awarding him a 100&nbsp;[[Guinea (British coin)|guinea]]s a year studentship of three years. He was [[Call to the Bar|called to the Bar]] on 13 June 1923, and was offered a tenancy by O'Hagan. His first few years were spent receiving small [[Brief (law)|briefs]] from a variety of clients, including work prosecuting those who failed to pay rail tickets and fines.<ref>Heward (1990) p.21</ref> During this time he also wrote a manual for the railway police giving guidance on incidents such as taxi drivers who refused to take a customer to a destination within the area specified by the [[Public Carriage Office]] (which they were legally obliged to do).<ref>Freeman (1993) p.92</ref> He wrote his first article in 1924 titled "[[Quantum meruit|Quantum Meruit]] and the Statute of Frauds" on the decision in ''Scott'' v ''Pattison'' [1923] 2 KB 723; it was accepted by the ''[[Law Quarterly Review]]'' and published in January 1925.<ref name="Freeman 1993 p.86" />
พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันรงมีบทบาทในทางการเมืองน้อยครั้งมาก และครั้งที่โดดเด่นที่สุดคือใน [[พ.ศ. 2412]] ซึ่ง '''อันเต๋อไห่''' ({{zh-all|c=安德海|p=Āndéhǎi}}) หัวหน้าขันทีในพระราชสำนัก และคนสนิทของพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ ได้เดินทางลงใต้เพื่อไปซื้อหาอาภรณ์ลายมังกรจำนวนหนึ่งสำรับไปจัดทำเป็นเครื่องทรงของพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ เมื่อไปถึง[[มณฑลชานตง]]กลับแสดงอำนาจบาตรใหญ่โดยอ้างว่าเป็นผู้แทนพระองค์พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ และรีดนาทาเร้นเอาทรัพย์สินจากประชาชน ส่งผลให้เกิดความเดือดร้อนทั่วไป ผู้ว่าราชการมณฑลจึงทำหนังสือกราบบังคมทูลสมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงผู้สำเร็จราชการแทนพระองค์ทั้งสอง พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันเมื่อตรับแล้ว ก็มีพระราชเสาวนีย์ให้มณฑลจัดการจับกุมและประหารขันทีอันเต๋อไห่โดยไม่ชักช้า ว่ากันว่า การสั่งประหารอันเต๋อไห่นี้ ทำให้พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ไม่ทรงพอพระราชหฤทัยเป็นอย่างยิ่ง
 
His work steadily increased in amount and quality throughout the 1920s and '30s. By the 1930s he was making most of his court appearances in the senior courts such as the [[High Court of Justice]]; in 1932 he was advised by his clerk that he should not be seen in the [[County Court]]s, and that he should leave this work for lesser members of the chambers.<ref name="hew7">Heward (1990) p.22</ref> In 1929 he helped edit several chapters of ''Smith's Leading Cases (13th ed.)'' and in 1932 acted as a supervising editor for the 9th edition of Bullen & Leake's ''Precedents for Pleadings in the King's Bench Division''.<ref>Heward (1990) p.25</ref> In 1932 he moved to his own set of chambers in Brick Court, and by 1936 he was earning over £3,000 a year.<ref name="hew7" /> A notable case was ''[[L'Estrange v F Graucob Ltd]]'' [1934] 2 KB 394, where he successfully argued an [[exemption clause]] was incorporated because a contract was signed. This was counter to his work as a judge, where he tried to minimise their impact, but he said that 'If you are an advocate you want your client to win. If you are a judge you don't care who wins exactly. All you are concerned about is justice'.<ref>Heward (1990) p.26</ref>
== พระพันปีหลวงและผู้สำเร็จราชการในจักรพรรดิกวางซวี่ และการเสด็จทิวงคต==
 
From 1937 until 1944 he worked as Chancellor of the [[Anglican Diocese of Southwark|Diocese of Southwark]], and from 1942 to 1944 was Chancellor of the [[Diocese of London]]. He applied to become a [[King's Counsel]] on 15 January 1938. The appointments were announced on 7 April;<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=34500|startpage=2322|date=8 April 1938|accessdate=12 February 2009}}</ref> he was sworn in on 9 April and received letters of congratulation from, among others, [[Rayner Goddard, Baron Goddard|Rayner Goddard]].<ref>Heward (1990) p.29</ref> After the start of the Second World War, Denning volunteered; he was too old for active service, and was instead appointed legal advisor to the North East Region. In 1942 he took the case of ''[[Gold v Essex County Council]]'' [1942] 2 KB 293, which changed the law to make hospitals liable for the professional negligence of their staff.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.94</ref>
ในวันที่ [[12 มกราคม]] [[พ.ศ. 2418 ]] สมเด็จพระ[[จักรพรรดิถงจื้อ]]เสด็จสวรรคตโดยไม่มีพระราชโอรส จึงทำให้ต้องมีการเลือกฮ่องเต้พระองค์ใหม่ ซึ่ง พระพันปีหลวงฉืออัน เลือก พระโอรสของเจ้าชายกง เป็นจักรพรรดิพระองค์ใหม่ แต่พระนาง[[ซูสีไทเฮา]]ผู้มีอิทธิพลในราชสำนักเหนือกว่าพระนางซูอันไทเฮาในขณะนั้นได้เลือก [[จักรพรรดิกวังซวี่|องค์ชายไจ้เทียน]](สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิกวางสูในอนาคต) พระโอรสเจ้าชายชุนที่ 1 ซึ่งการเลือกองค์ชายไจ้เทียนเป็นจักรพรรดิพระองค์ใหม่ โดยมี พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันและ พระพันปีหลวงฉือสีป็นผู้สำเร็จราชการร่วมกัน
 
In December 1943 a judge was taken ill, and Denning was asked to take his place as a [[Commissioner of Assize]]. This was regarded as a 'trial' for membership of the judiciary, and Denning was appointed [[Recorder (judge)|Recorder]] of Plymouth on 17 February 1944.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=36402|startpage=1015|date=29 February 1944|accessdate=12 February 2009}}</ref> On 6 March 1944, while arguing a case in the House of Lords, Denning was taken aside by the Lord Chancellor and told that he wanted Denning to become a judge at the [[High Court of Justice]] in the Probate, Admiralty and Divorce Division. Denning accepted, and the announcement was made before the conclusion of the trial.<ref>Heward (1990) p.33</ref>
วันที่ [[8 เมษายน]] [[พ.ศ. 2424]] ระหว่างทรงออกขุนนางตอนเช้า พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันทรงรู้สึกไม่สบายพระองค์ จึงเสด็จกลับพระราชฐาน และเสด็จทิวงคตในบ่ายวันนั้น การทิวงคตโดยปัจจุบันทันด่วนของพระพันปีหลวงฉืออันสร้างความตื่นตะลึงแก่ประชาชนทั่วไป เพราะพระสุขภาพพลานามัยของพระนางอยู่ในขั้นดียิ่งยวดเสมอมา แต่ข่าวลือแพร่สะพรัดทั่วไปในจีนว่า เป็นพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ ที่ทรงวาง[[ยาพิษ|พระโอสถพิษ]]แก่พระพันปีหลวงฉืออัน ว่ากันว่า เพราะพระพันปีหลวงฉืออันทรงถือพระราชโองการจาก[[จักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง]]ให้มีพระราชอำนาจสั่งประหารพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ได้ หากว่าพระนางทรงก้าวก่ายการบ้านการเมือง หรือมีพระราชวิสัยไม่เหมาะสมอย่างไร อย่างไรก็ดี ข่าวลือดังกล่าวยังไร้หลักฐานยืนยันข้อเท็จจริง และนักประวัติศาสตร์ไม่ยอมรับอย่างเต็มร้อยในเรื่องการวางพระโอสถพิษดังกล่าว แต่สันนิษฐานกันว่า พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันทรงประชวร[[โรคลมปัจจุบัน|พระโรคลมปัจจุบัน]] โดยอ้างอิงบันทึกทางการแพทย์ที่ปรากฏอยู่ในเอกสารทางประวัติศาสตร์สมัยนั้น การสิ้นพระชนม์ของพระพันปีหลวงฉืออัน ส่งผลให้พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ทรงเป็นผู้บริหารราชการแผ่นดินแต่เพียงผู้เดียวอย่างเต็มพระองค์
 
== ศาลสูง ==
พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันทรงได้รับการเฉลิมพระนามหลังเสด็จสวรรคตแล้วว่า '''"สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี้ยวเจินฉืออันยู้ชิ้งเหอจิ้งเฉิงจิ้งอี้เทียนโจ้วเชิ้งเสี่ยน"''' ({{zh-all|c=孝贞慈安裕庆和敬诚靖仪天祚圣显皇后|p=Xiào Zhēn Cí Ān Yù Qìng Hé Jìng Chéng Jìng Yí Tiān Zuò Shèng Xiǎn}}) เรียกโดยย่อว่า "สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเซี่ยวเจินเสี่ยน" ({{zh-all|c=孝贞显皇后|p=Xiào Zhēn Xiǎn}}) ทั้งนี้ พระศพพระพันปีหลวงฉืออันได้รับการบรรจุ ณ [[สุสานหลวงราชวงศ์ชิงฝ่ายตะวันออก]] ({{zh-all|c=清东陵|p=Qīngdōnglíng, ชิงตงหลิง}}) ห่างจาก[[กรุงปักกิ่ง]]ไปทางตะวันออกเป็นระยะทางหนึ่งร้อยยี่สิบห้า[[กิโลเมตร]] เคียงข้างกับพระศพของพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่และ[[จักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง]]
 
[[Image:Royal-courts-of-justice.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The Royal Courts of Justice, where Denning sat between 1944 and 1956 in the High Court and Court of Appeal and again from 1962 to 1982 as Master of the Rolls]]
== พระอุปนิสัย ==
 
Denning was officially appointed on 7 March 1944<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=36420|startpage=1174|date=10 March 1944}}</ref> with a salary of £5,000, and received his knighthood on 15 March 1944.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=36430|startpage=1285|date=17 March 1944}}</ref> After becoming a judge Denning was also elected a [[Bencher]] of Lincoln's Inn, and became its Treasurer in 1964.<ref>Heward (1990) p.34</ref> Denning had little experience with divorce law and disliked it; it was seen as an inferior type of law.<ref>Heward (1990) p.35</ref> There were few good barristers specialising in divorce law; two other barristers were sworn in to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division along with Denning, and of the three only one had ever practised divorce law.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.147</ref> His work as a divorce judge was relatively sound; his decisions were overturned only once, in ''Churchman'' v ''Churchman'' [1945] 2 All ER 190.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.150</ref> With the appointment of [[William Jowitt, 1st Earl Jowitt|Lord Jowitt]] as [[Lord Chancellor]] in 1945 Denning was transferred to the King's Bench Division, where the chancellor thought his talents would be better put to use (with [[Hildreth Glyn-Jones]] QC, later a High Court judge, greeting him with the words 'welcome home').<ref>Heward (1990) p.39</ref> In 1946 he travelled the Western Circuit but was recalled by the Lord Chancellor to chair a committee looking at the reform of procedure in divorce cases. He continued working as a judge while chairing the daily committee. The committee was appointed on 26 June 1946 and published its first report in July, which reduced the time between ''[[decree nisi]]'' and ''decree absolute'' from 6 months to 6 weeks.<ref name="Heward 1990 p.40">Heward (1990) p.40</ref> The second report was published in November, recommending that County Court judges should be appointed to try cases, and the final report was published in February 1947 recommending the establishment of a Marriage Welfare Service. The reports were well received by the public and led to Denning being invited in 1949 to become President of the [[National Marriage Guidance Council]].<ref>Freeman (1993) p.176</ref>
พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันนั้นเป็นที่เคารพยำเกรงเพราะทรงมีพระจริตอ่อนโยนและมีพระเมตตา ซึ่งตรงกันข้ามกับพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่โดยสิ้นเชิงที่ผู้คนยำเกรงเพราะมีพระจริตดุดัน โหดร้าย และเจ้าเล่ห์ พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันทรงเอาพระทัยใส่ผู้คนรอบข้างเป็นอย่างดี จึงทำให้ทรงได้รับการเคารพจาก[[จักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิเสียนเฟิง]] และ[[จักรพรรดิถงจื้อ|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดิถงจื้อ]] พระโอรสของพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ เป็นอย่างยิ่งแม้ทรงมิใช่พระชนนีแท้ ๆ ก็ตาม แม้แต่ [[จักรพรรดิกวังซวี่]] ขณะทรงพระเยาว์ก็ทรงเคารพพระพันปีหลวงฉืออันเป็นอย่างมาก ความที่มีพระอุปนิสัยแตกต่างกันคนละขั้วของสมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงทั้งสองพระองค์นี้ ทำให้พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ทรงพระดำริว่า พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันเป็นหญิงเบาปัญญา หาความสามารถมิได้ ไม่ใส่ใจกิจการทั้งปวงเอาเสียเลย และลับหลัง ก็มักทรงพระโกรธพระพันปีหลวงฉืออันเป็นนิตย์ ผู้คนจึงเชื่อกันว่าการดับขันธ์อย่างปัจจุบันทันด่วนของพระพันปีหลวงฉืออันผู้ทรงมีพระพลานามัยเป็นปรกติเสมอนั้น เป็นการกระทำของพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่
 
His appointment to the King's Bench Division allowed him to hear pension appeals, and he attempted to reform the principles applied by the government minister and the Pensions Tribunals. In ''Starr'' v ''Ministry of Pensions'' [1946] 1 KB 345 he ruled that it was up to the tribunals to prove that an injury was not due to war service, reversing the previous state of affairs where a claimant would have to prove their injuries were due to war service before they would be granted a pension.<ref name="hew12">Heward (1990) p.44</ref> In ''James'' v ''Minister of Pensions'' [1947] KB 867 he also allowed for judges to approve time extensions for the claimant to gather more evidence when such extensions had been rejected by the Tribunal.<ref name="hew12" /> These two cases made a large difference to applicants, and he received praise from both the [[British Legion]] and the public.<ref>Heward (1990) p.45</ref> The government refused to do anything about those servicemen who had been rejected by the courts prior to Denning's judgment, which provoked public outcry under the slogan 'Fit for Service, Fit for Pension'.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.170</ref> The British Legion chose 73 cases and asked Denning to let the Legion present them while the courts were not sitting; Denning heard all 73 cases on 11 July 1946.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.171</ref>
อย่างไรก็ดี นักประวัติศาสตร์หลายรายกล่าวว่า ด้วยความที่พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันมีพระอุปนิสัยเช่นนั้น ทำให้ทรงมีพระจริยาวัตรเอื่อยเฉื่อย ไม่ใส่ใจกิจการทั้งปวง และเห็นแก่พระองค์มากกว่าส่วนรวมเฉกเช่นที่พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ทรงพระดำริ แต่พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่นั้นเป็นหญิงแกร่งที่ทรงมีคุณสมบัติเหมาะสมจะเป็นผู้นำคนได้ กระทั่งในยามที่ประเทศจีนประสบปัญหาใหญ่หลวง พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่ก็เอาพระทัยใส่ไม่อนาทร แต่พระพันปีหลวงฉืออันกลับเมินเฉยเพราะโปรดพระชนมชีพที่เรียบง่ายในพระราชวังมากกว่ากิจการที่ยุ่งยาก
 
In 1947 he decided in [[Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd|''Central London Property Trust Ltd'' v ''High Trees House Ltd'']] [1947] KB 130 (known as the 'High Trees' case), which was a milestone in [[English contract law]].<ref>McKendrick (2007) p.118</ref> It resurrected the principle of [[promissory estoppel]] established in [[Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co|''Hughes'' v ''Metropolitan Railway Co'']] (1876–77) LR 2 App Cas 439 and has been both praised and criticised by lawyers and legal theorists.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.181</ref>
== อ้างอิง ==
 
* Barbara Bennet Peterson, ''Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century'' - Page 352, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 076560504X
As a High Court judge Denning sentenced people to death, which he said at the time "didn't worry [him] in the least". Denning maintained that for murder, death was the most appropriate penalty, and that in cases where mistakes had been made there was always an appeals system.<ref name="sr1">Freeman (1993) p.231</ref> In the 1950s there was growing opposition to the use of the death penalty, and a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate abolishing it. Denning told the Commission in 1953 that "the punishment inflicted for grave crimes should adequately reflect the revulsion felt by the great majority of citizens for them".<ref name="sr1" /> He later changed his mind about capital punishment, regarding it as unethical.<ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?ei=pJzyTbyGLofEvQOih5XBBg&ct=result&id=pUUVAAAAMAAJ&dq=john+mortimer+in+character&q=death+penalty#search_anchor Mortimer (1984) p.11]</ref> In 1984 he wrote "Is it right for us, as a society, to do a thing – hang a man – which none of us individually would be prepared to do or even witness? The answer is 'no, not in a civilised society'".<ref name="Freeman 1993 p.232">Freeman (1993) p.232</ref>
 
== ศาลอุทธรณ์ ==
 
After less than five years as a judge, Denning was appointed a [[Lord Justice of Appeal]] on 14 October 1948.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=38431|startpage=5445|date=15 October 1948|accessdate=12 February 2009}}</ref> He was sworn in as a [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Counsellor]] on 25 October 1948. As a Lord Justice of Appeal he continued to make reforming judgments in a variety of areas, particularly in family law and the rights of deserted wives. In 1952 the Court of Appeal heard ''Bendall'' v ''McWhirter'' [1952] 2 QB 466 and ruled that a deserted wife occupying the marital home had a personal licence to stay there.<ref>Heward (1990) p.50</ref> The decision provoked disapproval among the judiciary and from the public; a correspondent wrote: <blockquote>Dear Sir: You are a disgrace to all mankind to let these women break up homes and expect us chaps to keep them while they rob us of what we have worked for and put us out on the street. I only hope you have the same trouble as us. So do us all a favour and take a Rolls and run off [[Beachy Head]] and don't come back.<ref>Heward (1990) p.52</ref></blockquote>
 
The House of Lords effectively nullified Denning's work with the case ''National Provincial Bank Ltd'' v ''Ainsworth'' [1965] AC 1175 in 1965, which ruled that the deserted wife had no licence to stay. The decision was very unpopular and led to the passing of the [[Matrimonial Homes Act 1967]], which partially restored Denning's judgment in the form of a statute.<ref>Heward (1990) p.53</ref> Much of his work in favour of the deserted wife was based around his interpretation of the [[Married Women's Property Act 1882]], which the House of Lords unanimously overruled in [[Pettitt v Pettitt|''Pettitt'' v ''Pettitt'']] [1970] AC 777 in 1970.<ref>Heward (1990) p.54</ref> Further notable decisions by Denning in this area were ''Heseltine'' v ''Heseltine'' [1971] 1 WLR 342 in 1971 and ''Wachtel'' v ''Wachtel'' [1973] Fam 72 in 1973,<ref>Freeman (1993) p.365</ref> which created basic rules for dividing family assets in a divorce case, something which had not previously been established in the law.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.366</ref>
 
In 1951 he gave a noted dissenting judgment in the case [[Candler v Crane, Christmas & Co|''Candler'' v ''Crane, Christmas & Co'']] regarded as a 'brilliant advancement to the law of negligent misstatements'<ref>Freeman (1993) p.208</ref> and which was later approved of by the House of Lords in [[Hedley Byrne v Heller|Hedley Byrne v Heller & Partners Ltd [1963] 2 All ER 575]]. In [[Combe v Combe|''Combe'' v ''Combe'']] in 1952 he elaborated on his resurrected doctrine of promissory estoppel, saying that it could be a 'shield' not a 'sword'; it could be used to defend a claim, but not to create a cause of action where none existed.<ref>McKendrick (2007) p.113</ref><ref>McKendrick (2007) p.114</ref> In 1954 his decision in [[Roe v Minister of Health|''Roe'' v ''Minister of Health'']] [1954] 2 AER 131 altered the grounds on which hospital staff could be found negligent, a legal precedent he himself had set in ''Gold'' v ''Essex County Council'' in 1942. In 1955 his leading judgment in [[Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation|''Entores Ltd'' v ''Miles Far East Corporation'']] [1955] 2 QB 327 implemented a way to judge the moment of [[Offer and acceptance|acceptance]] in an instantaneous or near-instantaneous method of communication; like the 'High Trees' case it is still valid.<ref>McKendrick (2007) p.43</ref>
 
== สภาขุนนาง ==
 
After the resignation of [[Geoffrey Lawrence, 1st Baron Oaksey|Lord Oaksey]] in 1956 Denning was offered a job as a Law Lord. After a period of contemplation (he worried that such an appointment would reduce his chances of becoming Master of the Rolls or Lord Chief Justice) he accepted, and was formally offered the job on 5 April 1957. He was appointed on 24 April 1957, as '''[[Baron]] Denning''', of Whitchurch in the County of Southampton; for the [[Supporters (heraldry)|supporters]] of his [[coat of arms]] he chose [[William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield|Lord Mansfield]] and [[Edward Coke|Sir Edward Coke]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=41055|startpage=2519|date=26 April 1957|accessdate=12 February 2009}}</ref> Many members of the judiciary and the Bar approved of his appointment, but he was warned that he should move slowly to reform the court.<ref>Heward (1990) p.86</ref> During his time in the House of Lords he also served as Chairman of the [[Quarter Sessions]] of East Sussex. During his time in the House of Lords Denning frequently expressed [[dissenting opinion]]s, including in a Privy Council case where he argued a dissenting opinion despite the fact that Privy Council cases only allowed one opinion to be expressed.<ref>Heward (1990) p.88</ref> Denning did not enjoy his time in the House of Lords and clashed frequently with [[Gavin Simonds, 1st Viscount Simonds|Viscount Simonds]], who was known as a conservative and orthodox judge.<ref name="hew13">Heward (1990) p.89</ref> Despite his reputation as a fiercely individual judge, Denning dissented in only 16% of cases he heard in the House of Lords; fewer than [[James Keith, Baron Keith of Avonholm|Lord Keith]], who dissented 22% of the time.<ref name="hew13" /> On 9 May 1960, Denning was appointed a [[Deputy Lieutenant]] of Sussex.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=42035|startpage=3468|date=17 May 1960|accessdate=12 February 2009}}</ref>
 
== รองอธิบดีตุลาการ ==
 
In 1962 [[Raymond Evershed, 1st Baron Evershed|Lord Evershed]] resigned as [[Master of the Rolls]], and Denning was appointed to replace him on 19 April 1962<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=42654|startpage=3276|date=20 April 1962|accessdate=12 February 2009}}</ref> with a salary of £9,000. Although Denning himself described it as 'a step down' he was pleased with his appointment, as he had much preferred his time with the Court of Appeal than the House of Lords.<ref>Heward (1990) p.110</ref> Court of Appeal judges sit in threes, and the Lords in fives (or more), so it was suggested that to get his way in the Court of Appeal Denning only had to persuade one other judge whereas in the House of Lords it was at least two. The other 'benefit' of the Court of Appeal is that it hears more cases than the House of Lords, and so has a greater effect on the law. During his twenty years as Master of the Rolls, Denning could choose both which cases he heard, and the judges with whom he sat. Therefore, on most issues, he effectively had the last word; comparatively few cases went on to the House of Lords, which was at that time Britain's highest court of law.
 
As President of the Court of Appeal he selected cases he felt to be particularly important to hear, and rather than having an American system (where judges had a rota for taking cases), assigned cases to those judges who had expertise in that particular area of law. In 1963 he chaired a committee investigating ways to reduce the archive of legal documents kept by the [[Public Record Office]]; by that point the files for civil cases of the High Court alone occupied four miles of shelving.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.306</ref> The final report was presented to the Lord Chancellor on 16 May 1966, with the conclusion being that 'if our proposals are implemented the Public Record Office alone will be relieved of two hundred tons of records (occupying 15,000 feet of shelving)'.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.308</ref> The Lord Chancellor took Denning's report to heart, and had the changes he recommended implemented immediately.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.309</ref>
 
=== กฎหมายว่าด้วยสัญญา ===
 
Denning gave the leading judgment in [[D & C Builders Ltd v Rees|''D & C Builders Ltd'' v ''Rees'']] [1965] 2 QB 617 in 1965. D & C Builders Ltd (the respondent) had been hired by Rees (the appellant) to do some construction work at his shop, where he sold building materials.<ref name="b1">{{cite web|url=http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/1965/3.html|title=D & C Builders Ltd v Rees [1965<nowiki>]</nowiki> EWCA Civ 3 (12 November 1965) |publisher=[[BAILII]]|accessdate=6 May 2009}}</ref> The respondent finished the work and repeatedly phoned the appellant to request the money they were owed. After three phone calls spread out over several months the appellant's wife spoke to the respondents; she said there were several problems with the work that they had done, and she would only pay £300 of the £482 owed.<ref name="b1" /> The respondents replied that £300 would barely cover the costs of the materials, but that they would accept it anyway. If the respondents had not received the money they would have gone bankrupt, something the appellant's wife was well aware of.<ref name="b1" /> In his judgement, Denning modified English case law on part payment and [[accord and satisfaction]], saying that the rules on part payment can be set aside in situations where one of the parties is under duress.<ref>McKendrick (2007) p.380</ref> The fact that D & C Builders were effectively forced into accepting the lesser amount meant that the payment was not valid.<ref name="b1" />
 
In [[Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd|''Thornton'' v ''Shoe Lane Parking Ltd'']] [1971] 2 QB 163 in 1971 the Court of Appeal under Denning ruled that when dealing with [[offer and acceptance]] between a person and an automated machine the offer was made by the machine.<ref>McKendrick (2007) p.42</ref> In [[Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd v Ex-Cell-O Corp Ltd|''Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd'' v ''Ex-Cell-O Corp Ltd'']] [1979] 1 WLR 401 in 1979 Denning reformed case law in relation to the so-called '[[Offer and acceptance#Battle of the forms|Battle of the Forms]]'.
 
=== กฎหมายว่าด้วยละเมิด ===
 
Denning gave the leading judgment in [[Letang v Cooper|''Letang'' v ''Cooper'']] [1964] 2 All ER 292 in 1964.<ref name="b2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/1964/5.html|title=Letang v Cooper [1964<nowiki>]</nowiki> EWCA Civ 5 (15 June 1964) |publisher=[[BAILII]]|accessdate=6 May 2009}}</ref> Mrs Letang, on holiday in Cornwall, decided to lie down and rest in grass outside a hotel. Cooper drove into the hotel car park and, not seeing Letang, ran over her legs.<ref name="b2" /> More than three years after the events, Letang brought a [[English tort law|tort]] case against Cooper, claiming damages for her injuries.<ref name="b2" /> The standard tort for personal injuries is that of [[negligence]], which has a three-year [[statute of limitations]], and Letang instead claimed damages under the tort of [[Intentional tort|Trespass to the Person]].<ref name="b2" /> In his judgment, Denning stated that the tort of Trespass could only be used if the injury was inflicted intentionally; if it was unintentionally, only negligence could be used.<ref>Hodge (2004) p.2</ref>
 
In [[Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd v. Martin & Co. Ltd|''Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd'' v ''Martin & Co. Ltd'']] [1973] 1 QB 27 in 1973 he delivered a leading judgment on the subject of the recovery of [[pure economic loss]] in [[negligence]].<ref name="d3">{{cite web|url=http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/1972/3.html|title=Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd. v Martin & Co (Contractors) Ltd. [1972<nowiki>]</nowiki> EWCA Civ 3 (22 June 1972) |publisher=[[BAILII]]|accessdate=6 May 2009}}</ref> Spartan Steel were a company that manufactured stainless steel in Birmingham, and their factory was powered by electricity. Less than a mile away from the factory Martin & Co were doing maintenance work on a road when they accidentally unearthed and damaged the power cable providing the factory with electricity.<ref name="d3" /> Due to the power being off the factory lost a large amount of money; £368 on damaged goods, £400 on the profits they would have made from those goods and £1,767 for the steel they could not make due to the power outage.<ref name="d3" /> The question was what Spartan Steel could claim money for. Martin & Co agreed they were negligent, and offered to pay for the damaged goods and the profit that Spartan Steel would have made on those goods, but refused to pay damages for the steel Spartan Steel could not make due to the power outage.<ref name="d3" /> In his judgment Denning agreed that they would only have to pay for losses associated with the damaged goods, not the money lost on the steel that could not be made due to the power outage because it counted as [[pure economic loss]].<ref name="d3" /> For [[public policy]] reasons Denning would not allow the recovery of pure economic loss, stating in his judgement that:
#Statutory utility providers are never liable for damages caused by their negligence.
#A blackout is a common hazard and a risk which everyone can be expected to tolerate from time to time.
#If claims for pure economic loss in such cases were allowed, it might lead to countless claims, some of which may be spurious.
#It would be unfair to place the entire weight of many comparatively small losses upon the shoulders of one person in such cases.
#The law does not leave the claimant without remedy by allowing him to recover the economic losses that are directly consequential upon physical damage.<ref name="d3" />
 
The Court of Appeal's decision in ''Spartan Steel'' has been criticised, firstly for being based on public policy rather than any legal principle,<ref name="ought">Oughton (1987) p.374</ref> and secondly because the main public policy ground for their decision (that allowing claims of pure economic loss would lead to countless claims) has never been backed up by evidence.<ref name="ought" /> The House of Lords eventually ruled in ''Junior Books v Veitchi'' [1982] 3 All ER 201 that pure economic loss was recoverable.<ref name="ought" />
 
=== คดีโพรฟูโม ===
 
Denning became best known as a result of his report into the [[Profumo Affair]]. [[John Profumo]] was the [[Secretary of State for War]] with the British government. At a party in 1961 Profumo was introduced to [[Christine Keeler]], a showgirl, and began having an affair with her. At the same time she was in a relationship with [[Yevgeni Ivanov (spy)|Yevgeni Ivanov]], a [[military attaché|naval attaché]] at the embassy of the [[Soviet Union]]. On 26 January 1963 Keeler was contacted by police on an unrelated matter and voluntarily gave them information about her relationship with Profumo.<ref>Heward (1990) p.125</ref> The police did not initially investigate; no crime had been committed, and the morals of ministers were not their concern. Although the relationship lasted only a few weeks it became public knowledge in 1962. Keeler attempted to publish her memoirs in the ''Sunday Pictorial'' in January 1963 but Profumo, still insisting that he had done nothing wrong, forced them to back down with threats of legal action should the story be published.<ref>Heward (1990) p.126</ref> Profumo made a statement in the House of Commons on 22 March, saying that "there was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler". On 4 June 1963 he contacted the Chief Whip and the Prime Minister's private secretary and informed them that he had indeed been having an affair with Keeler; therefore, he sent a letter of resignation to the Prime Minister, which was accepted.<ref>Heward (1990) p.129</ref>
 
On 21 June 1963 [[Harold Macmillan]], the Prime Minister at the time, asked Denning to lead an enquiry into the "circumstances leading to the resignation of the former Secretary of State for War, Mr J. D. Profumo".<ref>Heward (1990) p.130</ref> He started work on 24 June and began speaking to witnesses a day later. This period of the inquiry took 49 days and involved his speaking to 160 people. He concluded that the primary responsibility for the scandal was with Profumo, for associating with Keeler and for lying to his colleagues, with the greatest error being his false statement in the House of Commons. He also said that the situation had been looked at in the wrong way by police, members of parliament and the security services; rather than asking if Profumo had committed adultery they should have asked if his conduct had led ordinary people to believe he committed adultery. His analogy was with divorce law; a man does not need to have committed adultery for his wife to have grounds to divorce him, but rather she simply has to believe that he has committed adultery. This is because such a belief would destroy the trust and confidence within the relationship. This brought criticism from several government ministers including [[John Hobson (politician)|Sir John Hobson]], the [[Attorney-General for England and Wales]], saying that it would mean condemning a man on the basis of suspicion rather than evidence.<ref>Heward (1990) p.131</ref>
 
Denning's final report was 70,000 words long and was completed in the summer of 1963. He signed it on 16 September and it was published ten days later. It was a best-seller; 105,000 copies were sold, 4,000 in the first hour,<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/260718.stm|title=Lord's century: Denning at 100 |date=23 January 1999|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=17 January 2009}}</ref> with people queuing outside [[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] to buy copies. The full report was published in ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' as a supplement and was described as "the raciest and most readable Blue Book ever published".<ref name="bbc1" /> The report was criticised as a "whitewash", a claim Denning rejected; he said that "while the public interest demands that the facts should be ascertained as completely as possible there is a higher interest to be considered, namely the interest of justice to the individual which overrides all others".<ref>Heward (1990) p.132</ref>
 
=== ความป่วยเจ็บและความขัดแย้ง ===
 
In 1979 he began to experience hip and leg problems; one of his legs had shortened an inch and a half and he had to learn to walk again.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.384</ref> Although he remained otherwise in good health this was a sign of his increasing age, and the disabilities that came with it began to affect his judgments as well. While speaking at Cumberland Lodge in 1980 he forgot the details of the case, something shocking for a judge noted for his excellent memory {{Citation needed|reason= please identify your source for this assertion|date=February 2010}}.
 
In 1980, during an appeal by the [[Birmingham Six]] (who were later acquitted) Lord Denning judged that the men should be stopped from challenging legal decisions. He listed several reasons for not allowing their appeal:<blockquote>
Just consider the course of events if their action were to proceed to trial ... If the six men failed it would mean that much time and money and worry would have been expended by many people to no good purpose. If they won, it would mean that the police were guilty of perjury; that they were guilty of violence and threats; that the confessions were involuntary and improperly admitted in evidence; and that the convictions were erroneous. ... That was such an appalling vista that every sensible person would say, "It cannot be right that these actions should go any further."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZijN_Z0ZJsgC&pg=PA157&dq=denning+%22appalling+vista%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES Elliott (2007) p.157]
</ref>
</blockquote>
 
In 1982 he published ''What Next in the Law''; in it, he seemed to suggest some members of the black community were unsuitable to serve on juries, and that immigrant groups may have had different moral standards to native Englishmen.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.392</ref> His remarks followed a trial over the [[St Pauls riot]] in Bristol; two jurors on the case threatened to sue him and the Society of Black Lawyers wrote to the Lord Chancellor to request that Denning "politely and firmly" be made to retire.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.393</ref> Denning apologised for his remarks on 21&nbsp;May and handed a letter to the Lord Chancellor detailing his resignation, effective as of 29&nbsp;September.
 
On 5 July [[George Thomas, 1st Viscount Tonypandy|George Thomas]] held a dinner in Denning's honour at the [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker's House]]. Attending were [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[Robert Runcie]], [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]], [[Geoffrey Howe]], [[Geoffrey Lane, Baron Lane|Lord Lane]], [[William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw|William Whitelaw]], [[Michael Havers, Baron Havers|Michael Havers]] and [[Christopher Leaver]].<ref>Denning (1983) p.15</ref> On 30 July 1982, his last day in court, Denning prepared four judgments and, dressed in his official robes and in the company of the Lord Chief Justice, delivered his farewell speech to over 300&nbsp;lawyers crowded into the court. He delivered his last judgment on 29&nbsp;September in [[George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd|''George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd'' v ''Finney Lock Seeds Ltd'']] [1983] 2 AC 803 and, characteristically, dissented.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.400</ref>
 
== เกษียณอายุและอสัญกรรม ==
 
In retirement Denning moved to Whitchurch and continued the work he had done outside court hours, lecturing and presenting awards. He also on occasion dispensed legal advice; in February 1983 he advised Patrick Evershed on the statutory duties of water suppliers.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.407</ref> Further hip troubles were resolved with a full replacement in March 1983, although a fall later that year forced him to stay at home for six weeks. With free time on his hands Denning spoke in the [[House of Lords]] on matters that interested him, supporting an amendment to the [[Abortion Act 1967]] and bills designed to allow the administration of companies in financial difficulties. In 1983 he published the final volume of his autobiography ''The Last Chapter'' and a year later published ''Landmarks in the Law''. His final book titled ''Leaves from my Library'' was published in 1986; it was a collection of his favourite pieces of prose, and was subtitled "An English Anthology".<ref>Freeman (1993) p.410</ref> He appeared in an episode of the children's television programme ''[[Jim'll Fix It]]'', helping to grant a thirteen-year-old girl's wish to be a barrister for a day.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/1999/mar/06/guardianobituaries |location=London |work=The Guardian | first=Stephen | last=Sedley | title=A benchmark of British justice | date=6 March 1999}}</ref> By 1989 his health was failing; he was suffering from dizzy spells, and after falling from a train at Waterloo Station he was advised he should not visit London again unless he was driven.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.411</ref>
 
In the summer of 1990 he agreed to a taped interview with A.N. Wilson, to be published in ''[[The Spectator]]''. They discussed the [[Guildford Four]]; Denning remarked that if the Guildford Four had been hanged "They'd probably have hanged the right men. Just not proved against them, that's all".<ref>Freeman (1993) p.412</ref> His remarks were controversial and came at a time when the issue of miscarriage of justice was a sensitive topic.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.413</ref> He had expressed a similar controversial opinion regarding the [[Birmingham Six]] in 1988, saying: "Hanging ought to be retained for murder most foul. We shouldn't have all these campaigns to get the Birmingham Six released if they'd been hanged. They'd have been forgotten, and the whole community would be satisfied... It is better that some innocent men remain in jail than that the integrity of the English judicial system be impugned."<ref>Whitton (1988) p.117</ref><ref>de Burgh (2000) p.117</ref>
 
On 25 November 1997 he was made a member of the [[Order of Merit]];<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=54962|startpage=13399|date=28 November 1997|accessdate=13 February 2009}}</ref> by this point he was too weak to travel to London to receive it, so instead a representative of the Queen travelled to Whitchurch to present it to him.<ref name="odnb">{{cite web|url=http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/72037|title=Denning, Alfred Thompson|last=Goff|first=Robert|year=2004|work=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=18 January 2009}}</ref>
 
He celebrated his 100th birthday in Whitchurch on 23 January 1999, receiving telegrams from both the Queen and Queen Mother. A male choir sang "[[Happy Birthday to You]]" and the local church had a new bell named "Great Tom" cast in his honour specifically for the occasion.<ref name="odnb" /> By this point his health had deteriorated even further; he was legally blind, required a hearing aid and only ventured outside on a motorised buggy.<ref name="bbc1" /> On 5 March 1999 he fell ill and was rushed to [[Royal Hampshire County Hospital]], where he died of an internal haemorrhage.<ref name="odnb" /> A memorial service was held at [[Westminster Abbey]] on 17&nbsp;June 1999; among the tributes received, one was from the Lord Chief Justice [[Thomas Bingham, Baron Bingham of Cornhill|Lord Bingham]], who described Denning as 'the best-known and best loved judge in our history'.<ref name="odnb" />
 
== งานอื่น ๆ ==
 
As well as his work as a barrister and judge, Denning was involved in supporting student law societies and other groups; at various times he was Vice-President of [[Queen's University Belfast]] Law Society and a patron of the [[Legal Research Foundation]], the United Law Clerks' Society and the Commonwealth Legal Education Association. He also spent time as the Vice-President of the [[Society of Genealogists]], Honorary President of the [[Council for the Protection of Rural England]] and Honorary President of the [[Glasgow University Dialectic Society]].<ref name="li1">Heward (1990) p.122</ref> From 1950 he acted as an administrator and fund-raiser for [[Cumberland Lodge]]. After being made aware of the Le Court charity for invalid ex-servicemen by [[Geoffrey Cheshire]] Denning became the chairman of the organisation in 1952.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.217</ref> In 1953 he was elected President of [[Birkbeck College, University of London]] and on 18 March presented the 1952 Haldane Memorial Lecture on the subject of the rule of law and the welfare state.<ref name="Freeman 1993 p.227">Freeman (1993) p.227</ref> In 1964 he was made President of the English Association in recognition of his contributions to English prose.<ref name="freprose">Freeman (1993) p.304</ref> He became Chairman of the [[Historical Manuscripts Commission]] in 1962,<ref name="indep" /> resigning in December 1982.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=49255|startpage=1699|date=4 February 1983|accessdate=13 October 2009}}</ref>
 
In 1949 he gave four lectures at the [[Senate House (University of London)|Senate House, University of London]] on behalf of the Hamlyn Trust titled ''Freedom under the Law''.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.200</ref> The success of these lectures led to his being invited to speak at many more events; in early 1950 he spoke at [[University College, Dublin]] and in June spoke at the Holdsworth Club meeting at [[Birmingham University]].<ref>Freeman (1993) p.212</ref> In February 1953 he gave a speech on 'the need for a new equity' to the Bentham Club at [[University College London]], and in May gave the thirty-third Earl Grey Memorial Lecture at King's College, University of Durham (now, part of [[University of Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncl.ac.uk/about/history/unihistory.phtml |title= History of the University |date=14 February 2008 |publisher=Newcastle University |accessdate=17 February 2009 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071210145517/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/about/history/unihistory.phtml |archivedate = 10 December 2007}}</ref>), on the influence of religion on law.<ref name="Freeman 1993 p.227"/> Towards the end of his judicial career he gave the 1980 [[Richard Dimbleby Lecture]] on the subject of "Misuse of Power".<ref>Freeman (1993) p.385</ref>
 
In addition to being a Bencher of Lincoln's Inn in 1944 he was made an Honorary Bencher of [[Middle Temple]] in 1972, [[Gray's Inn]] in 1979 and [[Inner Temple]] in 1982, making him the only person<ref name="li1" /> to be elected a Bencher or Honorary Bencher of all four [[Inns of Court]]. In 1963 he was made a [[Doctor of Civil Law]] by the University of Oxford.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.313</ref> He was appointed a [[Deputy Lieutenant]] of Hampshire on 2 June 1978.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=47562|startpage=6849|date=6 June 1978|accessdate=13 February 2009}}</ref>
 
== การท่องเที่ยวต่างแดน ==
 
Throughout his career Denning travelled to a variety of foreign countries to lecture and learn more about other legal systems. In 1954 he was sponsored by the [[Nuffield Foundation]] to travel to South Africa and visit the universities there in the court vacation. He visited all six universities, accompanied by his son Robert and wife Joan, lecturing on the role of the judiciary and the press in safeguarding freedom.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.228</ref> In 1955 he travelled to the United States at the behest of the [[American Bar Association]] and was elected an honorary member, followed by a trip to Canada a year later as a guest of the [[Canadian Bar Association]], where he was awarded an honorary law doctorate by the [[University of Ottawa]] and made a life member of the Canadian Bar Association.<ref name="Freeman 1993 p.232" /><ref name="li2">Heward (1990) p.173</ref> In 1958 he visited Israel and from there travelled to Poland, where he was surprised by both the number of female judges and how badly they were paid.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.252</ref> In 1961 he travelled again to Israel to give the Lionel Cohen Lecture at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]].<ref>Freeman (1993) p.262</ref>
 
In January 1964 he and his wife Joan travelled to India and Pakistan, visiting major cities such as Madras and Jaipur, meeting eminent jurists and speaking with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].<ref>Freeman (1993) p.299</ref> He again visited Canada and the United States in the long vacation of 1964 and addressed a full conference hall in New York.<ref name="freprose" /> On 14 August 1965 he and his wife flew to South America for a month-long tour of the continent sponsored by the [[British Council]]. The couple visited Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Peru before flying north to visit Mexico City.<ref name="fre12">Freeman (1993) p.315</ref> On 6 January 1966 they flew to Malta, where Denning spoke at various legal conferences and lectures. In the same year they flew to San Francisco, Fiji and finally to New Zealand to take part in the law conference at [[Dunedin, New Zealand]].<ref name="fre12" /> His lecture at the conference so impressed an Australian visitor that he was invited in 1967 to speak at the Australian Law Society annual conference.<ref name="fre12" /> While there, he spoke at a student meeting at the [[University of Sydney]]; while the previous speaker received a slow hand-clap, Denning was given a standing ovation and the student law society was named the Denning Law Society in his honour.<ref name="fre13">Freeman (1993) p.323</ref> On the way home the couple made a stop at Delhi, where they gave a dinner for members of the Indian Bar who had welcomed them during their visit in 1964. In 1968 they again visited Canada, and Denning was given an honorary degree by [[McGill University]].<ref name="fre13" /> In 1969 he again travelled to India, this time on an official visit with [[Elwyn Jones, Baron Elwyn-Jones|Elwyn Jones]] and [[John Widgery, Baron Widgery|Sir John Widgery]].<ref>Freeman (1993) p.327</ref>
 
In 1970 he travelled to Fiji to arbitrate in a dispute between some Fijian sugar-cane growers and the Australian owners of the refining mills, which he was permitted to do on the condition he did not take a fee. Denning refused to have any contact with the government as a way to emphasise his neutrality in the situation. The agreements between growers and millers had been based on a contract written in 1961 due to end in March 1970. The growers did not understand the price formula used and were convinced that they were getting a bad deal; in response to their demand for better terms the mill-owners threatened to leave Fiji. Despite criticism from both sides at the beginning of the arbitration process Denning came up with a solution which appeased both sides, creating a new formula for working out prices and requiring that the mill owners have an accountant inspect their accounts and report back to the growers.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.328</ref> Denning's decision impressed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, who invited him to report on the banana growing industry in Jamaica in the vacation of 1971.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.329</ref> His foreign travels to lecture on English law led to him being described as the "Ambassador-at-Large for the common law".<ref name="indep" />
 
== ลักษณะทางตุลาการ ==
 
Denning was noted for his excellent memory, repeating notes almost verbatim in his exams at Oxford and on one occasion identifying the exact book, page and paragraph of text in a judgment that covered a particular situation.<ref name="hew9">Heward (1990) p.27</ref> As a judge he attempted to make his decisions and the law publicly understandable, believing that the public would not want to follow the law unless they believed and understood that it was just.<ref name="indep">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituaries-lord-denning-1078629.html|title=Obituaries: Lord Denning |date=6 March 1999|work=The Independent |location=London |accessdate=5 May 2009 | first=Edmund | last=Heward }}</ref> In his cases he referred to the parties by name in his judgments rather than as "plaintiff" and "defendant" and used short sentences and a "storytelling" style of speech shown in the case [[Beswick v Beswick|''Beswick'' v ''Beswick'']]<ref>[[Beswick v Beswick|''Beswick'' v ''Beswick'']] [1968] AC 58</ref> where his judgment started:<blockquote>Old Peter Beswick was a coal merchant in Eccles, Lancashire. He had no business premises. All he had was a lorry, scales, and weights. He used to take the lorry to the yard of the National Coal Board, where he bagged coal and took it round to his customers in the neighbourhood. His nephew, John Joseph Beswick, helped him in his business. In March 1962, old Peter Beswick and his wife were both over 70. He had had his leg amputated and was not in good health. The nephew was anxious to get hold of the business before the old man died. So they went to a solicitor, Mr. Ashcroft, who drew up an agreement for them.<ref>Heward (1990) p.36</ref></blockquote>
 
Or the famous opening lines from his judgement in [[Miller v Jackson|Miller v Jackson [1977] QB 966]]:
 
<blockquote>
In summertime village cricket is the delight of everyone. Nearly every village has its own cricket field where the young men play and the old men watch. In the village of Lintz in County Durham they have their own ground, where they have played these last 70 years. They tend it well. The wicket area is well rolled and mown. The outfield is kept short. It has a good club house for the players and seats for the onlookers. The village team play there on Saturdays and Sundays. They belong to a league, competing with the neighbouring villages. On other evenings after work they practise while the light lasts. Yet now after these 70 years a judge of the High Court has ordered that they must not play there any more. He has issued an injunction to stop them. He has done it at the instance of a newcomer who is no lover of cricket. This newcomer has built, or has had built for him, a house on the edge of the cricket ground which four years ago was a field where cattle grazed. The animals did not mind the cricket. But now this adjoining field has been turned into a housing estate. The newcomer bought one of the houses on the edge of the cricket ground. No doubt the open space was a selling point. Now he complains that when a batsman hits a six the ball has been known to land in his garden or on or near his house. His wife has got so upset about it that they always go out at week-ends. They do not go into the garden when cricket is being played. They say that this is intolerable. So they asked the judge to stop the cricket being played. And the judge, much against his will, has felt that he must order the cricket to be stopped: with the consequence, I suppose, that the Lintz Cricket Club will disappear. The cricket ground will be turned to some other use. I expect for more houses or a factory. The young men will turn to other things instead of cricket. The whole village will be much the poorer. And all this because of a newcomer who has just bought a house there next to the cricket ground.<ref>[[case citation|[1977] QB 966]], at 976, per Lord Denning MR.</ref>
</blockquote>
 
In court Denning preferred to let counsel talk on for as long as they wanted to so that he could get a grasp of the situation without wading through irrelevant court papers; to prevent them going on too long he sat quietly and allowed them to wind down at their own pace.<ref>Heward (1990) p.80</ref>
 
Denning was also known for his long working schedule; when he served as Master of the Rolls he sat for five full days a week, and required reserved judgments (about one case in ten) to be written during the weekend. He expected the other justices to keep to the same schedule as him, and was repeatedly warned about overwork.<ref name="sdb1" /> Henn Collins wrote him a poem: <blockquote>My brother pray be warned by me <br />And always rise in time for tea <br />And when you feel you must sit late <br />Remember my untoward fate<ref>Collins 'untoward fate' was his early retirement due to heart difficulties.</ref> <br />Don't go on sitting until seven <br />But sit next morning at eleven<ref name="sdb1">Heward (1990) p.116</ref> </blockquote>
 
Unlike most of the judiciary Denning firmly believed that the press should have access to the courts and freedom to criticise magistrates and judges. He believed all legal proceedings should be held in public, quoting [[Jeremy Bentham]] when he said that "in the darkness of secrecy all sorts of things can go wrong. If things are really done in public you can see that the judge does behave himself, the newspapers can comment on it if he misbehaves&nbsp;— it keeps everyone in order".<ref>Heward (1990) p.117</ref>
 
For many years Denning was the president of the Lawyers' Christian Fellowship, and he once wrote that "Without religion there is no morality, and without morality there is no law."<ref>{{cite news
| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/law-obituaries/7315416/Lord-Denning-OM.html |title= Lord Denning, OM | date= 6 March 1999 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London | accessdate=12 August 2010 }}</ref> His Christian beliefs sometimes affected his judgments, particularly on the subject of the sanctity of marriage. In ''Re L (infants)'' he reversed a decision to give the children of a couple to the wife in a divorce case, believing that should the wife get custody of the children there would be no chance of saving the marriage.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.347</ref>
 
== สิ่งตกทอด ==
 
Denning has been described as the most influential judge of the 20th century,<ref name="tim1">{{cite news|url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law/columnists/gary_slapper/article2346999.ece|title=The Law Explored: Lord Denning|last=Slapper |first=Gary|date=29 August 2007|work=The Times |location=London |accessdate=18 January 2009}}</ref> in part because of his changes to the common law and also due to his personalisation of the legal profession. With his judgments on war pensions and his role in the enquiry into the [[Profumo Affair]], Denning became possibly the best known judge ever to belong to the English judiciary,<ref name="tim1" /> with the public treating Lord Denning and the Court of Appeal as synonymous.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.223</ref> He was equally well-loved and controversial, appreciated for his role as 'the peoples judge' and his support for the common man and disliked by elements of the bar and judiciary for 'uncertainty in the law' created by his broad judgments.<ref name="guard">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/1999/mar/06/claredyer1|title= Lord Denning, controversial 'people's judge', dies aged 100 |date=6 March 1999|work=The Guardian |location=London |location=UK |accessdate=18 January 2009 | first=Clare | last=Dyer}}</ref>
 
Denning made sweeping changes to the Common Law, with the resurrection of [[Estoppel (English law)|equitable estoppel]] and his reform of divorce law. A common misconception is that most of his judgments were overturned in the House of Lords; many were, including the expansion to the doctrine of [[fundamental breach]] he set out in [[Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd|''Photo Production Ltd'' v ''Securicor Transport Ltd'']], but they let many judgments stand and on occasion agreed with his judgment in situations where he dissented, such as in his final case [[George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd|''George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd'' v ''Finney Lock Seeds Ltd'']] in 1983.<ref>McKendrick (2007) p.223</ref>
 
Several law-related things have been named after Denning due to his reputation as a judge, in particular the Denning Law Journal of the [[University of Buckingham]] and the Lord Denning Scholarship of [[Lincoln's Inn]]. At the [[University of Western Ontario]], the bi-monthly social outings for the students of [[Western Law School]] are referred to as "Dennings" in his honour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.uwo.ca/50th/index.html|title=The University of Western Ontario Faculty of Law|publisher=University of Western Ontario|accessdate=20 December 2009|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100226142814/http://www.law.uwo.ca/50th/index.html|archivedate=26 February 2010}}</ref> The law library of Magdalen College, Oxford, where Denning studied, is known as the Denning Law Library.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libraries at Magdalen|url=http://www.magd.ox.ac.uk/libraries-and-archives/libraries/libraries-at-magdalen|publisher=Magdalen College, Oxford|accessdate=11 June 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110609070023/http://www.magd.ox.ac.uk/libraries-and-archives/libraries/libraries-at-magdalen| archivedate= 9 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>
 
== ชีวิตส่วนตัว ==
 
Denning met his future wife Mary Harvey on 25 October 1914 aged fifteen at his confirmation; she was the daughter of the Vicar of Whitchurch. Denning attempted to court her for many years, but for a long time his love was unrequited, with Mary wanting them to be only friends.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.67</ref> After a dance at [[Beaulieu, Hampshire|Beaulieu]] on 18 January 1930 she finally admitted her love for him, and he returned to Hampshire with her to pick out an engagement ring.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.99</ref> Barely six months away from the set date for their wedding Mary was diagnosed with [[tuberculosis]], but she recovered and the couple were married on 28 December 1932, with the wedding officiated by [[Cecil Henry Boutflower]], [[Bishop of Southampton]].<ref name="hew6">Heward (1990) p.17</ref>
 
The couple moved to London in 1933 but the city at the time was sooty and foggy. This affected Mary's health, and after treatment at [[Guy's Hospital]] she was transferred to Brompton Hospital, where she had a lung removed. After recovering, she moved to Southampton to stay with her parents for two years, with Denning visiting every weekend.<ref name="hew6" /> By 1935 she had fully recovered, and the couple bought a house in [[Tylers Green, Cuckfield]] called Fair Close. Their son, Robert, was born on 3 August 1938; he later became a Dean at Magdalen College, Oxford, teaching inorganic chemistry.<ref name="hew5" /> Mary developed [[gallstones]] in 1941, and after an initial recovery had a haemorrhage on 21 November, dying the next morning.<ref>Heward (1990) p.31</ref>
 
In 1945 Denning met Joan Stuart, a widow with three children: Pauline, Hazel and John. They married on 27 December 1945, and were by all accounts happy together.<ref name="Heward 1990 p.40" /> On 19 October 1992 she suffered a massive heart attack; although she survived the initial attack she died a few days later on 23 October.<ref>Freeman (1993) p.415</ref>
 
== ดูเพิ่ม ==
 
*[[List of cases involving Lord Denning]]
{{คอมมอนส์|Empress Dowager Ci'an}}
 
== อ้างอิง ==
* [[พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่]]
; เชิงอรรถ
* [[ราชวงศ์ชิง]]
{{Reflist|4}}
 
; บรรณานุกรม
{{เริ่มกล่อง}}
*{{cite book|last=Denning|first=Alfred Thompson|title=The Closing Chapter|publisher=Butterworths|year=1983|isbn=0-406-17612-4}}
{{สืบตำแหน่ง
*{{cite book|title=Investigative Journalism: Context and Practice|editor-last=de Burgh|editor-first=Hugo|year=2000|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-19054-1}}
| สี1 = #E9E9E9
*{{cite book|last=Elliott|first=Catherine|title=English legal system|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4058-4733-9}}
| สี2 =
*{{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Iris|title=Lord Denning&nbsp;– A Life|publisher=Random House|year=1993|isbn=0-09-174594-2}}
| สี3 = #E9E9E9
*{{cite book|last=Heward|first=Edmund|title=Lord Denning: A Biography|publisher=George Weidenfeld & Nicholson Limited|year=1990|isbn=0-297-81138-X}}
| รูปภาพ = Arms of the Qing Dynasty.svg
*{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-PKlZ4A1Ns0C&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=Letang+v.+Cooper|title=Tort Law|last=Hodge|first=Sue|year=2004|publisher=Willan Publishing|isbn=1-84392-098-0|accessdate=17 January 2009}}
| ตำแหน่ง = [[รายพระนามสมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีและพระพันปีหลวงแห่งจีน|จักรพรรดินีแห่งจักรวรรดิชิง]] <br />([[ราชวงศ์ชิง]])
*{{cite book|last=McKendrick|first=Ewan|title=Contract Law|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2007|edition=7th |isbn=0-230-01883-1}}
| จำนวนตำแหน่ง =
*{{cite book|last=Mortimer|first=John|title=In Character|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1984|isbn=0-14-006389-7}}
| ก่อนหน้า = [[สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงเสี้ยวจิง|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี่ยวจิงเฉิง]]
*{{cite journal|last=Oughton|first=David|year=1987|title=Liability in tort for economic loss suffered by the consumer of defective goods|journal=Journal of Business Law|issn=0021-9460}}
| จำนวนก่อนหน้า = 1
*{{cite book|last=Whitton|first=Evan|title=The Cartel: Lawyers and their Nine Magic Tricks|year=1988|publisher=E & N Whitton|isbn=0-646-34887-6}}
| ถัดไป = [[สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี้ยวเจ๋อ|สมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีเสี้ยวเจ๋ออี้]]
| จำนวนถัดไป = 1
| ช่วงเวลา = 1852–1861
}}
{{สืบตำแหน่ง
| สี1 = #E9E9E9
| สี2 =
| สี3 = #E9E9E9
| รูปภาพ = Arms of the Qing Dynasty.svg
| ตำแหน่ง = [[รายพระนามสมเด็จพระจักรพรรดินีและพระพันปีหลวงแห่งจีน|พระพันปีหลวงแห่งจักรวรรดิชิง]] <br> ''ร่วมกับ สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี''
| จำนวนตำแหน่ง =
| ก่อนหน้า = [[สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงเสี้ยวจิง|สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงเสี่ยวจิงเฉิง]]
| จำนวนก่อนหน้า = 1
| ถัดไป = [[พระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่|สมเด็จพระพันปีหลวงฉือสี่]] <br> ''โดยลำพัง''
| จำนวนถัดไป = 1
| ช่วงเวลา = 1861–1881
}}
 
; ดูเพิ่ม
{{เกิดปี|2380}}{{ตายปี|2424}}
*{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=Charles|title=Fiat Justitia: Lord Denning and the Common Law|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2009|isbn=1-4438-1244-7}}
[[หมวดหมู่:บุคคลในยุคราชวงศ์ชิง]]
*{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=Charles|title=The Last of England: Lord Denning’s Englishry and the Law|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2009|isbn=1-4438-1245-5}}
[[หมวดหมู่:ผู้สำเร็จราชการแทนพระองค์ที่เป็นสตรี]]
*{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=Charles|title=Freedom under the Law: Lord Denning as Master of the Rolls 1962–1982|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2009|isbn=1-4438-1246-3}}
[[หมวดหมู่:ชาวแมนจู]]
 
== แหล่งข้อมูลอื่น ==
{{Wikiquote|Lord Denning}}
*{{NRA|P32938}}
 
{{S-start}}
{{s-legal}}
{{Succession box| before=[[Raymond Evershed, 1st Baron Evershed|The Lord Evershed]] | title=[[Master of the Rolls]] | years=1962–1982| after=[[John Donaldson, Baron Donaldson of Lymington|The Lord Donaldson of Lymington]] }}
{{S-end}}
 
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2012}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2012}}
{{Masters of the Rolls}}
 
{{Authority control|VIAF=89812099}}
 
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME = Denning, Alfred Thompson
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Lord Denning; Tom Denning; Baron Denning
|SHORT DESCRIPTION =
|DATE OF BIRTH = 23 January 1899
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Whitchurch, Hampshire]]
|DATE OF DEATH = 5 March 1999
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Royal Hampshire County Hospital]], [[Winchester]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Denning, Alfred Denning, Baron}}
[[Category:1899 births]]
[[Category:1999 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:British Queen's Counsel]]
[[Category:Deputy Lieutenants of Hampshire]]
[[Category:Deputy Lieutenants of Sussex]]
[[Category:Disease-related deaths in England]]
[[Category:English Anglicans]]
[[Category:English centenarians]]
[[Category:English judges]]
[[Category:English legal writers]]
[[Category:Family Division judges]]
[[Category:Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Law lords]]
[[Category:Lords Justice of Appeal]]
[[Category:Masters of the Rolls]]
[[Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn]]
[[Category:Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:People associated with Birkbeck, University of London]]
[[Category:People from Whitchurch, Hampshire]]
[[Category:Queen's Bench Division judges]]
[[Category:Queen's Counsel 1901–2000]]
[[Category:Royal Engineers officers]]
 
[[ende:EmpressAlfred Dowager Ci'anDenning]]
[[he:לורד דנינג]]
[[es:Ci'an]]
[[zh:湯姆•丹寧,丹寧男爵]]
[[fr:Ci'an]]
[[id:Ci'an]]
[[ja:東太后]]
[[ko:효정현황후]]
[[nl:Ci'an]]
[[no:Ci'an]]
[[sv:Cian]]
[[uk:Ци Ань]]
[[vi:Từ An Thái hậu]]
[[zh:慈安太后]]