ผลต่างระหว่างรุ่นของ "รอยซ์"

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Tiemianwusi (คุย | ส่วนร่วม)
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Tiemianwusi (คุย | ส่วนร่วม)
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บรรทัด 1:
[[Image:Unpicture.jpg|thumb|right|325px|The [[United Nations]] is responsible for much of the current framework of [[international law]]]]
 
'''กฎหมายระหว่างประเทศแผนกคดีเมือง''' ({{lang-en|public international law}}) เป็น[[กฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ]] ว่าด้วยโครงสร้างและการดำเนินงานของ[[รัฐเอกราช]] (sovereign state) และองค์กรทำนองเดียวกัน เช่น [[Holy See|สถาบันสันตะปาปา]] (Holy See), ตลอดจน[[องค์การระหว่างรัฐบาล]] (intergovernmental organisation), [[องค์การพหุชาติ]] (multinational corporation) และ[[บุคคล]] (person) ไม่ว่า[[บุคคลธรรมดา]] (natural person) หรือ [[นิติบุคคล]] (juridical person) โดยแผนกคดีเมืองเป็นหนึ่งในสองแผนกของกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ อีกแผนกหนึ่ง คือ [[กฎหมายระหว่างประเทศแผนกคดีบุคคล]] (private international law) ซึ่งว่าด้วยการแก้ไข[[การขัดกันแห่งกฎหมาย]] (conflict of laws)<ref>[http://www.law.columbia.edu/library/Research_Guides/internat_law/pubint#Definition%20of%20International%20Law Columbia Law School, McKeever, 2003 &mdash; Definition of International Law]</ref>
 
กฎหมายระหว่างประเทศแผนกคดีเมืองมีความสำคัญเพิ่มขึ้นทุกขณะ โดยเฉพาะในช่วงหลังคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ยี่สิบเป็นต้นมา เนื่องมาจากการขยายตัวของ[[การค้าระหว่างประเทศ]] (global trade), [[armed conflict|ความขัดแย้งโดยใช้อาวุธ]] (armed conflict), ความเสื่อมโทรมทางสภาพแวดล้อม (environmental deterioration) ระดับสากลโลก, การละเมิด[[สิทธิมนุษยชน]] การคมนาคมระหว่างประเทศอันก้าวหน้ารวดเร็วและกว้างขวาง กับทั้งความเติบโตทางการสื่อสารระดับโลก
บรรทัด 7:
การศึกษากฎหมายระหว่างประเทศแผนกคดีเมือง แบ่งเป็นสองสาขา คือ [[กฎหมายนานาชาติ]] ({{lang-en|law of nations}}; {{lang-la|jus gentium}}) และ [[กฎหมายระหวางชาติ]] ({{lang-en|law between nations}}; {{lang-la|jus inter gentes}})
 
{{cquote|ชาติทั้งปวงจำต้อรักษาบรรดาหลักการแห่งกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศและพันธกรณีของตนไว้ทุกเขณะ|30px|30px|[[Louis Henkin]]<ref name="Henkin Quote">{{cite book|last=Henkin|first=Louis|title=How Nations Behave|year=1968|pages=47}}<br><blockquote>"It is probably the case that almost all nations observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all the time."</blockquote></ref>}}
Public international law should not be confused with "''[[private international law]]''", which is concerned with the resolution of [[conflict of laws]]. In its most general sense, international law "consists of rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of states and of intergovernmental organizations and with their relations ''[[inter se]]'', as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical."<ref>[http://www.law.columbia.edu/library/Research_Guides/internat_law/pubint#Definition%20of%20International%20Law Columbia Law School, McKeever, 2003 &mdash; Definition of International Law]</ref>
 
== บ่อเกิด และภาพรวม ==
{{cquote| It is probably the case that almost all nations observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all the time.|30px|30px|[[Louis Henkin]]<ref name="Henkin Quote">{{cite book|last=Henkin|first=Louis|title=How Nations Behave|year=1968|pages=47}}</ref>}}
 
{{บทความหลัก|บ่อเกิดกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ}}
 
==Sources and scope==
{{Main|Sources of international law}}
Public international law has three principal sources: international treaties, custom, and general principles of law. In addition, judicial decisions and teachings may be applied as "subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law" (cf. Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice). International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in [[treaty|treaties]]. Customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by ''[[opinio juris]]'', i.e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior (and they are also explicitly mentioned as such in Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law). Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the [[Second World War]] with the formation of the [[International Law Commission]] (ILC), under the aegis of the [[United Nations]]. Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of [[peremptory norm]]s (''jus cogens'') as to include all states with no permissible derogations.
 
บรรทัด 23:
Traditionally, [[sovereign state]]s and the [[Holy See#Status of the Holy See in international law|Holy See]] were the sole subjects of international law. With the proliferation of [[international organizations]] over the last century, they have in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of [[international human rights law]], [[international humanitarian law]], and [[international trade law]] (e.g., [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) Chapter 11 actions) have been inclusive of corporations, and even of certain individuals.
 
== ประวัติศาสตร์ ==
==History==
 
{{Main|History of public international law}}
{{บทความหลัก|ประวัติศาสตร์กฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ}}
 
[[Image:1648 verhandlungen-rathaussaal-muenster-westfaelischer-friede 1-640x420.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The public international law originates in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in [[Osnabrück]] and [[Münster]] (1648)]]
 
เส้น 45 ⟶ 47:
Though the European democracies tend to support broad, universalistic interpretations of international law, many other democracies have differing views on international law. Several democracies, including [[India]], [[Israel]] and the [[United States]], take a flexible, eclectic approach, recognizing aspects of public international law such as territorial rights as universal, regarding other aspects as arising from treaty or custom, and viewing certain aspects as not being subjects of public international law at all. Democracies in the developing world, due to their past colonial histories, often insist on non-interference in their internal affairs, particularly regarding human rights standards or their peculiar institutions, but often strongly support international law at the bilateral and multilateral levels, such as in the United Nations, and especially regarding the use of force, disarmament obligations, and the terms of the UN Charter.
 
== การตีความ ==
==Interpretation==
 
Where there are [[dispute]]s about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law interpretation is within the domain of the protagonists, but may also be conferred on judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice, by the terms of the treaties or by consent of the parties. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves, but the processes of diplomacy and availability of supra-national judicial organs operate routinely to provide assistance to that end.
Insofar as treaties are concerned, the [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] writes on the topic of interpretation that:
เส้น 55 ⟶ 58:
These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law.
 
== การบังคับ ==
==Enforcement==
 
Since international law exists in a legal environment without an overarching "sovereign" (i.e., an external power able and willing to compel compliance with international norms), "enforcement" of international law is very different than in the domestic context. In many cases, enforcement takes on [[Ronald Coase|Coasian]] characteristics, where the norm is self-enforcing. In other cases, defection from the norm can pose a real risk, particularly if the international environment is changing. When this happens, and if enough states (or enough powerful states) continually ignore a particular aspect of international law, the norm may actually change according to concepts of customary international law. For example, prior to World War I, [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] was considered a violation of international law and ostensibly the [[casus belli]] for the United States' declaration of war against Germany. By World War II, however, the practice was so widespread that during the [[Nuremberg trials]], the charges against German Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] for ordering unrestricted submarine warfare were dropped, notwithstanding that the activity constituted a clear violation of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.
 
=== การบังคับในระดับรัฐ ===
===Enforcement by states===
 
Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law comes from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it is almost always purely through [[diplomacy]] and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation. Though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state (the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law.
 
It is implicit in the Westphalian system of nation-states, and explicitly recognized under Article 51 of the [[Charter of the United Nations]], that all states have the inherent right to individual and collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against them. Article 51 of the UN Charter guarantees the right of states to defend themselves until (and unless) the Security Council takes measures to keep the peace.
 
=== การบังคับในระดับสากล ===
===Enforcement by international bodies===
 
{{Main|International legal system}}
{{บทความหลัก|ระบบกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ}}
{{See|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 377}}
{{ดูเพิ่ม|ข้อมติของสหประชาชาติที่ 377}}
 
Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] for debate. The General Assembly cannot make binding resolutions, only 'recommendations', but through its adoption of the [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 377|"Uniting for Peace" resolution (A/RES/377 A)]], of 3 November 1950, the Assembly declared that it has the power to authorize the use of force, under the terms of the UN Charter, in cases of breaches of the peace or acts of aggression, provided that the Security Council, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member, fails to act to address the situation. The Assembly also declared, by its adoption of [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 377|resolution 377 A]], that it could call for other collective measures&mdash;such as economic and diplomatic sanctions&mdash;in situations constituting the milder "threat to the Peace".
เส้น 82 ⟶ 88:
Though states (or increasingly, [[international organizations]]) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] have an optional [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international [[Human Rights Committee]].
 
== ทฤษฎี ==
==International legal theory==
 
{{Main|International Legal Theory}}
{{บทความหลัก|ทฤษฎีกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ}}
 
International legal theory comprises a variety of theoretical and methodological approaches used to explain and analyse the content, formation and effectiveness of public international law and institutions and to suggest improvements. Some approaches center on the question of compliance: why states follow international norms in the absence of a coercitive power that ensures compliance. Other approaches focus on the problem of the formation of international rules: why states voluntarily adopt international law norms, that limit their freedom of action, in the absence of a world legislature; while other perspectives are policy oriented: they elaborate theoretical frameworks and instruments to criticize the existing norms and to make suggestions on how to improve them. Some of these approaches are based on domestic [[legal theory]], some are [[interdisciplinary]], and others have been developed expressly to analyse international law. Classical approaches to International legal theory are the [[Natural law]], the Eclectic and the [[Legal positivism]] schools of thought.
 
=== สำนักกฎหมายธรรมชาติ ===
===Natural law===
 
The [[natural law]] approach argues that international norms should be based on [[axiomatic]] truths. 16th century natural law writer, [[Francisco de Vitoria]], a professor of [[theology]] at the University of [[Salamanca]], examined the questions of the [[just war]], the Spanish authority in the [[Americas]], and the rights of the Native American peoples.
 
เส้น 92 ⟶ 101:
In 1625 [[Hugo Grotius]] argued that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on [[morality]] and [[Divine retribution|divine justice]] while the relations among polities ought to be governed by the law of peoples, the ''[[jus gentium]]'', established by the consent of the community of nations on the basis of the principle of ''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'', that is, on the basis of the observance of commitments. On his part, [[Emmerich de Vattel]] argued instead for the equality of states as articulated by 18th century natural law and suggested that the law of nations was composed of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other. During the 17th century, the basic tenets of the Grotian or [[Eclecticism|eclectic]] school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became the fundamental principles of the European political and legal system and were enshrined in the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]].
 
=== สำนักกฎหมายปฏิฐานนิยม ===
===Legal positivism===
 
The early [[legal positivism|positivist]] school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. 16th century [[Alberico Gentili]] used historical examples to posit that positive law (''jus voluntarium'') was determined by general consent. [[Cornelius van Bynkershoek]] asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states, while [[John Jacob Moser]] emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. The positivism school narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring [[rationality]] over [[morality]] and [[ethic]]s. The 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]] marked the formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe.
 
Modern legal positivists consider international law as a unified system of rules that emanates from the states' will. International law, as it is, is an "[[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective]]" reality that needs to be distinguished from law "as it should be." Classic positivism demands rigorous tests for [[law|legal]] [[validity]] and it deems irrelevant all extralegal arguments.<ref>[[Bruno Simma]] and Andreas L.Paulus "Symposium on method in International Law: The Responsibility of Individuals for Human Rights Abuses in Internal Conflicts: A Positivist View" 93 American Journal of International Law 302 (April, 1999)</ref>
 
== สาขาของกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศแผนกคดีเมือง ==
==Branches of public international law==
 
<div style="column-count:3;-moz-column-count:3;-webkit-column-count:3">
* [[Lex Junia Licinia|Consular law]]
เส้น 115 ⟶ 126:
</div>
 
== ดูเพิ่ม ==
==See also==
<div style="column-count:3;-moz-column-count:3;-webkit-column-count:3">
* [[Chapeau (disambiguation)|Chapeau]]
เส้น 151 ⟶ 162:
</div>
 
== เชิงอรรถ ==
==Notes==
 
{{refs|2}}
 
== อ้างอิง ==
==References==
 
* I. Brownlie, ''Principles of Public International Law'' (7th edn [[Oxford University Press]] 2008) ISBN 0199260710
* P.-M. Dupuy & Y. Kerbrat, "Droit international public" (10th ed., Paris, Dalloz, 2010) ISBN 9782247088935
เส้น 162 ⟶ 175:
* [[Rafael Domingo Osle]], ''The New Global Law'' (Cambridge University Press 2010)
 
==แหล่งข้อมูลภายนอก ==
==External links==
 
* [http://www.dipublico.com.ar/english/ Public International Law - Resources]
* [http://www.burneylawfirm.com/international_law_primer.htm A Brief Primer on International Law] With cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007.
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